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Introductory Lectures
-1
Design of Structures
- determine forces acting on the structure
using structural analysis
- proportion different elements economically,
stability, safety, serviceability functionality
Structural concrete is commonly used for
different civil engineering structures
Introductory Lectures
Structural concrete concrete and steel
Complimentary properties
- Concrete resists compression
- Steel resists tension in most cases
Structural concrete plain, reinforced,
prestressed.
Code of Practice
Designers guided by guidelines and
specifications called Code of Practice
Codes specified by different organizations to
ensure public safety
Codes specify design loads, allowable stresses,
materials , construction types and other
details
US American Concrete Institute Code 318ACI 318 or ACI code
Elastic Approach
Not used in ACI or rather deleted by ACI
Based on Elastic Theory
Assumes a straight line stress distribution
along the depth of the concrete member
Members are proportioned on the basis of
allowable stresses on concrete and steel
Units
SI system (System International)
W= m g = 1 kg. x 9.81 m/s2 = 9.81 N
1 kN = 1000 N
1 m. = 100 cm.
Loads
Members design to resist loads
Two types of loads
- Dead Loads weight of structure and other
elements placed on it tiles, roofing , walls
- Live Loads steady / unsteady , slowly or
/rapidly, laterally or vertically - weight of
people, furniture, wind, temperature,
earthquake etc.
Loads to be specified
ACI does not specify loads
American National Standards Institute
specifies loads
AASHTO specifies highway and railway loading
for bridges and highways
Safety Provisions
Structural Members designed for higher loads
than actual to have margin / safety against failure
Multiply actual loads by load factors to get
factored loads
Load factors depend on how accurately the loads
can be estimated eg. Dead loads lower load
factors compared to Live loads.
Several load combinations have to be also
considered to design the structure for different
load combinations
Concrete Casting
Concrete Mix
Proper proportioning of different components
and well graded sound aggregates give strength
to concrete
Admixtures give concrete desired strength and
quality
Concrete is subsequently poured using mixers,
vibrated to get a dense mix at site and then cured
to get concrete of desired strength and properties
Concrete strength increases with age about 70
% in 7 days and 85-90 % in 14 days (28 days
strength is a benchmark of design)
Concrete Strength
Concrete strength is measured by testing cubes
(6) or cylinders (6 x 12)
Performance of RCC depends on relative
strength of concrete and steel
Stress-strain behavior of both materials is
important.
Stress-strain behavior is assessed using 6x12
cylinders
Steel Reinforcement
Steel reinforcement can be of different types
- Round Bars to ( 6mm. To 36 mm.) and
1 (45 mm.) and 2 (57 mm.)
- Round bars can be plain or deformed (Lect.0a)
- Plain bars used for stirrups, Deformed bars
used for main reinforcement to provide
bond
Part -3
Flexure Analysis of RCC Beams
Flexure Analysis
In proportioning reinforced concrete structural
members, three main items can be investigated:
1. The safety of the structure, which is maintained by
providing adequate internal design strength
2. Deflection of the structural member under service
loads. The maximum value of deflection must be
limited and is usually specified as a factor of the
span, to preserve the appearance of the structure
Flexure Analysis
3. Control of cracking conditions under service loads.
Visible cracks spoil the appearance of the structure and
also permit humidity to penetrate the concrete,
causing corrosion of steel and consequently weakening
the reinforced concrete member.
The ACI Code implicitly limits crack widths to 0.016 in.
(0.40mm) for interior members and 0.013 in. (0.33
mm) for exterior members.
Control of cracking is achieved by adopting and limiting
the spacing of the tension bars
Assumptions
RCC sections are non-homogenous since the
section is made up of two materials concrete
and steel
Proportioning ( determining sizes and areas
of each component) by ultimate strength is
based on assumptions
These assumptions make the design simplerbut their validity needs to be checked and
kept in mind
Assumptions
1. Strain in Concrete is the same as that in
reinforcing steel at that level this will
happen provided the bond is adequate
2. Strain in concrete is proportional to the
distance from the neutral axis
3. The modulus of elasticity of all grades of steel
is taken as E, = 29 x106 lb./in2 ( 200,000 MPa
or N/mm.2 ) The stress in the elastic range is
equal to the strain multiplied by Es
The neutral axis is an axis in the cross section of a beam or shaft along which
there are no longitudinal stresses or strains. If the section is symmetric, isotropic
and is not curved before a bend occurs, then the neutral axis is at the geometric
centroid. All fibers on one side of the neutral axis are in a state of tension, while
those on the opposite side are in compression
Assumptions
4. Plane cross-sections continue to be plane after
bending.
5. Tensile strength of concrete is neglected because
a. concrete's tensile strength is only about 10% of its
compressive strength,
b. cracked concrete is assumed to be not effective,
and
c. before cracking, the entire concrete section is
effective in resisting the external moment.
Assumptions
6. At failure the maximum strain at the extreme
compression fibres is assumed equal to 0.003
- ACI Code provision
7. For design strength, the shape of the
compressive concrete stress distribution may
be assumed to be rectangular, parabolic, or
trapezoidal. In this course, a rectangular
shape will be assumed (ACI Code, Section
10.2)
At zero external load, each beam carried its own weight in addition to that
of the loading system, which consisted of an I-beam and some plates.
Both beams behaved similarly at this stage
This stage was reached when the external load, P, was increased from 0
to P1 , which produced tensile stresses at the bottom fibers equal to the
modulus of rupture of concrete.
At this stage the entire concrete section was effective, with the steel bars
at the tension side sustaining a strain equal to that of the surrounding
concrete
Stress in the steel bars was equal to the stress in the adjacent concrete
multiplied by the modular ratio, n, the ratio of the modulus of elasticity
of steel to that of concrete. (n= Es / Ec - Strain same stress not same)
The compressive stress of concrete at the top fibers was still very small
compared with the compressive strength, fc . The behavior of beams
was elastic within this stage of loading.
Between cracks, the concrete bottom fibers had tensile stresses, but they
were of negligible value. It can be assumed that concrete below the
neutral axis did not participate in resisting external moments
Fig. 3.3 a
Balanced Section
Steel may reach its yield strength at the same
time as concrete reaches its ultimate strength,
Fig. 3.3b. The section is called a balanced
section.
Fig. 3.3 b
Fig. 3c
Strain levels
Balanced Section
The balanced strain condition develops in the
section when the tension steel, with the first
yield, reaches a strain corresponding to its yield
strength, fy , or s = fy/Es just as the maximum
strain in concrete at the extreme compression
fibers reaches 0.003, Fig. 3.5.
Load Factors
For the design of structural members, the factored design
load is obtained by multiplying the dead load by a load
factor and the specified live load by another load factor
The magnitude of the load factor must be adequate to limit
the probability of sudden failure and to permit an
economical structural design
The choice of a proper load factor or a proper factor of
safety depends mainly on the importance of the structure
(whether a courthouse or a warehouse), the degree of
warning needed prior to collapse, the importance of each
structural member (whether a beam or column), the
expectation of overload, the accuracy of artisanry,
and
the accuracy of calculations
Load Factors
Based on historical studies of various structures, experience, and
the principles of probability, the ACI Code adopts a load factor of
1.2 for dead loads and 1.6 for live loads. The dead load factor is
smaller, because the dead load can be computed with a greater
degree of certainty than the live load.
Load Combinations
Load Combinations
Balanced Section
In Fig. 3.7, if concrete fails, c, = 0.003, and if
steel yields, as in the case of a balanced
section, fs = fy
Balanced Section
In Fig. 3.7, if concrete fails, c, = 0.003, and if
steel yields, as in the case of a balanced
section, fs = fy
Balanced Section
Let us consider the case of a balanced section,
which implies that at ultimate load the strain
in concrete equals 0.003 and that of steel
equals the first yield stress at distance dt
divided by the modulus of elasticity of steel,
fy /ES,
Step 1.
From the strain diagram of Fig. 3.11,
Balanced Section
Balanced Section
Balanced Section
Internal Moment
Design Moment
Ratio of a to d