Antennas

Simple Antennas
Isotropic radiator is the simplest antenna
mathematically
Radiates all the power supplied to it,
equally in all directions
Theoretical only, cant be built
Useful as a reference: other antennas are
often compared with it

Half-Wave Dipole
Simplest practical antenna
Actual length is typically about 95% of a
half wavelength in free space

142 .5
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Radiation Resistance
Signal radiated into space appears as loss
from the antenna
Electrically this translates into a resistance
For a half-wave dipole fed in the center the
radiation resistance is approximately 70
ohms
Antennas also have actual resistance due to
their conductors

Antenna Efficiency

Pr Rr

PT RT

Directional Characteristics
All real antennas transmit more power in some
directions than in others
Two, two-dimensional diagrams are generally
used to show radiation patterns
Distance from the center represents radiation in
different directions
Calibration may be in dB relative to max. for that
antenna, or relative to isotropic (dBi) or half wave
dipole (dBd)

Antenna Gain Specifications

dBi means decibels with respect to an
isotropic radiator
dBd means decibels with respect to an ideal
half-wave dipole in its direction of
maximum radiation
The gain of a dipole is 2.14 dBi

dBd/dBi Conversion
Gain (dBi) = Gain (dBd) + 2.14 dB
Use dBi in Friiss Formula
Use dBi when it is necessary to find gain as
a power ratio compared with isotropic:
Gain (ratio) = antilog (dBi/10)
Antennas may be specified either way in
catalogs, etc. (check!)

Gain and Directivity

Directivity is a theoretical value ignoring
losses
Gain includes losses
As a ratio,
gain = directivity efficiency
Specifications give gain, but computer
models often find directivity

EIRP and ERP

EIRP = effective isotropic radiated power
Equal to the amount of power that would have
to be applied to an isotropic radiator to give the
same power density at a given point

ERP = effective radiated power

Equal to the amount of power that would have
to be applied to a half-wave dipole, oriented in
direction of maximum gain, to give the same
power density at a given point

EIRP/ERP Conversion
EIRP = ERP + 2.14 dB
EIRP is used in all our equations
Sometimes government regulations specify
ERP for transmitting installations
Conversion is easy (see above)

Dipole Impedance
At resonance, Z = 70 resistive if fed in
center
Above resonant frequency: inductive
Below resonant frequency: capacitive
Impedance can be raised by moving
feedpoint out towards ends (delta match)

Dipole Polarization
Polarization is same as axis of wire:
Vertical dipole is vertically polarized
Horizontal dipole is horizontally polarized

Ground Effects
Effect of ground near antenna is important
when antenna is within a few wavelengths
of ground
Very important up to and including HF,
usually less important for VHF and up
Effect of ground depends on ground
characteristics and distance of antenna from
ground

Reflection from Ground

Phase shift at ground of 180 degrees
Perfectly conductive ground would reflect
all the power that hits it
Real ground is not perfectly conductive
conductivity depends largely on moisture
content

Effect of combinining reflected and direct

signals depends on distance from ground

Folded Dipole Antenna

Same length as half wave dipole
Uses 2 conductors
Impedance 4 times that of normal dipole
Approximately 300 ohms at resonance

Bandwidth is greater than single-conductor

dipole

Monopole Antenna
Vertical
Half the length of a dipole (one-quarter wave
approximately)
Ground supplies the other half
If installed above ground, a ground plane can be
used instead
For a car antenna, the car is the ground plane
Input impedance half that of a dipole, about 35
ohms

1/4 wave monopole with ground plane for 144 MHz

AM Transmitter Tower (The tower is the antenna)

Loop Antennas
Usually small in comparison with
wavelength
Used in AM receivers and direction finders
May be air-wound or wound on a ferrite rod
Bidirectional as shown on next slide

5/8 Wavelength Antenna

Lower radiation angle and higher
impedance than 1/4 wave antenna
Can be used without an efficient ground
because of the high impedance

Discone Antenna
Very wide bandwidth
Often used for wideband receiving
applications such as scanners

Discone antenna for 25-1300 MHz

with whip antenna for transmitting on ham bands

Helical Antenna
Used to produce circular polarization
Several turns of tubing, usually with a
reflector
A variant is used for FM broadcasting

Antenna Matching
Antennas usually are resistive at only one
frequency
Even then, resistance may not match
feedline impedance
Any of the matching schemes discussed
previously can be used

Antenna Loading Coil

When an antenna is too short an inductance
can be added to increase its electrical length
Loading coils often used at base or center of
a vertical monopole
The whole antenna can also be wound into a
coil
This is often done with handheld transceivers

Loading Coil

Antenna Arrays
Simple antennas can be combined to
achieve desired directional effects
Individual antennas are called elements and
the combination is an array

Types of Arrays
Broadside: maximum radiation at right
angles to main axis of antenna
End-fire: maximum radiation along the
main axis of antenna
Phased: all elements connected to source
Parasitic: some elements not connected to
source
They re-radiate power from other elements

Yagi-Uda Array

Often called Yagi array

Parasitic, end-fire, unidirectional
One driven element: dipole or folded dipole
One reflector behind driven element and
slightly longer
One or more directors in front of driveh
element and slightly shorter

Yagi for 14, 21, 28 MHz Amateur Bands

UHF-TV Antenna: Yagi with Corner Reflector

Log-Periodic Dipole Array

Multiple driven elements (dipoles) of
varying lengths
Phased array
Unidirectional end-fire
Noted for wide bandwidth
Often used for TV antennas

UHF Yagi with reflector

VHF LPDA

VHF/UHF TV Antenna

Turnstile Antenna

2 dipoles
90 degrees between them
fed 90 degrees out of phase
mounted horizontally
Gives an omnidirectional pattern in
horizontal plane with horizontal
polarization

Turnstile Antenna for FM Broadcast Band

Monopole Array
Vertical monopoles can be combined to
achieve a variety of horizontal patterns
Patterns can be changed by adjusting
amplitude and phase of signal applied to
each element
Not necessary to move elements
Useful for AM broadcasting

Collinear Array
All elements along same axis
Used to provide an omnidirectional
horizontal pattern from a vertical antenna
Concentrates radiation in horizontal plane

Broadside Array
Bidirectional Array
Uses Dipoles fed in phase and separated by
1/2 wavelength

End-Fire Array
Similar to broadside array except dipoles
are fed 180 degrees out of phase
Radiation max. off the ends

Stacked Yagis
Stacking in-phase Yagis with halfwavelength vertical spacing
Reduces radiation above and below horizon
Increases gain in plane of the antenna

Plane Reflector
Mount antenna 1/4 wavelength from flat
metallic surface
Reflected wave and direct wave are in phase
along normal to survace
Increases radiation in that direction

Corner Reflector
More focused radiation than plane reflector
Often used with UHF TV antennas

UHF-TV Antenna: Yagi with Corner Reflector

Parabolic Reflector
All radiation emitted at focus emerges in a
beam parallel to the axis
Gives a narrow beam
Suitable mainly at microwave frequencies
because it must be large compared with the
wavelength

Parabolic Reflector Beamwidth

Beamwidth at half-power points

70

Parabolic Reflector Gain

As a power ratio (not dB)
With respect to isotropic

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