Structure in Elementary

Mathematics

Ji Son KP Thai
Learning Lab Human Perception
Lab
 Collaborators

 Philip Kellman

 Genius Programmers
 Joel Zucker
 Tim Burke

 Department of Education
 Ellen Clarke
 Julia Phelan


 IES Cognition and Student Learning

Grant
 Integrating Conceptual Foundations in Mathematics through the
Application of Principles of Perceptual Learning
 What is mathematics?

M a th e m a tic S tu d e n t

mia n
t
 Mathematic
s
 What is mathematics?

M a th e m a tic S tu d e n t

m
ia n
t
Structure
Patterns, Problem
Relationships Solving
, Change Getting the
right answer,
 Mathematic Computing
s
 What is mathematics?

M a th e m a tic S tu d e n t

m
ia n
t
Structure
Patterns, Problem
Relationships Solving
, Change Getting the
right answer,
 Mathematic Computing
3 + 4 = 7 . s 3 + 4 = ____
3 + 4 = 5 + 2
7 = 7

M cN e il & A lib a li, 2 0 0 5 ; R ittle - Jo h n so n & A lib a li, 1 9 9 9

 Why?

Mathematicia Student

m n
t
U.S. textbooks
-explanations of mathematics (36%)
-unsolved exercises (45%)
-interest-grabbing illustrations
irrelevant to lesson (19%)
-
Japanese textbooks
-explanations of mathematics (81%)
-unsolved exercises (19%)
-interest-grabbing illustrations
(0%)

Mayer, Sims, & Tajika, 1995

 The silent assumption

In order to solve, one must (at least



implicitly) understand structure…

True?


1.If students are proficient at solving,

will they be equally proficient in
structure identification?
2.Does student performance
differentiate according to structure
or solution method (operation)?
3.How do we train students to
appreciate structure?
 Method

• 31 homeschooled participants from

various states (roughly in 3rd grade)
• Completed sessions from home
computers
– 11.87 sessions (range 3-34)
– 383.42 trials total (range 93-757)
– (37.42 trials per session)
 Types of trials

• Two tasks: Solving and Structure

Mapping
• Four operations: Addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division
• Four contexts: objects, distance,
money, measurement

 Problem Structure learning

What kinds of problems?



• Two tasks: Solving and Structure

Mapping
• Four operations: Addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division
• Four contexts: Objects, Distance,
Money, Measurement
• Short sentences and algebraic
equations
–
 Solve - Object

Francis puts 15 tomato slices in 3

salads evenly. How many tomato
slices are in each salad?

E n te r a n sw e r.
 Structure Map - Object

Francis puts 15 tomato slices in 3

salads evenly. How many tomato
slices are in each salad?

15 slices minus 3 salads 3 salads times 15 slices

equals __ slices per salad equals __ slices per
salad

15 slices evenly in 3 salads __ slices per salad plus

equals __ slices per salad 3 salads equals 15 slices
 Structure Map - Object

Francis puts 15 tomato slices in 3

salads evenly. How many tomato
slices are in each salad?

15 3 5
tomato / salads =tomato slices
slices per salad
 Structure Map - Distance

Ellen walks 3 miles per hour. How

many hours will it take her to walk
12 miles?

 3 x __ =  12 - 3 =
12 __

__ + 3 = 1 2 / __ =
12 3
 Structure Map - Money

Garrett earns 6 dollars per hour.

How many dollars does Garrett earn in
5 hours?

 6+5=  6 x 5 = __
__

6 - 5 = __ 6 / 5 = __
 Structure Map - Measurement

Henry’s cactus is 5 feet tall. Sarah’s

cactus is 10 feet tall. How many times
taller is Sarah’s cactus than Henry’s
cactus?

10 feet minus __ equals 5 5 fe e t tim e s ___ e q u a ls 1 0

feet fe e t

5 times 10 feet equals __ 5 feet plus 10 feet equals

feet __
 The silent assumption

In order to solve, one must (at least



implicitly) understand structure…

True?


1.If students are proficient at solving,

will they be equally proficient in
structure identification?
 Solving Trials vs. Structure Mapping
Trials
Solving Trials vs. Structure Mapping Trials

O p e ra tio n , F(1, 29) = 86.14, p<.001

Task, F(1, 29) = 118.43, p<.001
 Breaking down mapping problems
Some mapping problems had the unknown as the solution…

U n kn o w n o n A + __ = C A + B = __ U n kn o w n o n
le ft __ + B = C B + A = __ R ig h t

C - __ = B C - A = __
C - __ = A C - B = __

A x __ = C A x B = __
__ x B = C B x A = __

C÷__ = B C÷A = __
C÷__ = A C÷B = __
 Solving Trials vs. Structure Mapping Trials

ll mapping problems with the unknown as the solution be easie

Breaking down Mapping problems

Operation, F(1, 29) = 85.28, p<.001

Unknown position, F(1, 29) = 14.58, p<.01
Interaction of Operator x Unknown position, F(1, 29) = 6.61, p<.05
 The silent assumption

In order to solve, one must (at least



implicitly) understand structure…

True?


1.If students are proficient at solving,

will they be equally proficient in
structure identification? Solving ≠
Structure Mapping
 The silent assumption

In order to solve, one must (at least



implicitly) understand structure…

True?


1.If students are proficient at solving,

will they be equally proficient in
structure identification? Solving ≠
Structure Mapping
2.Does student performance
differentiate according to structure
or solution method (operation)?
 Addition and Subtraction structure

sta rt ch a n g e

end

Start + Change = End

Change + Start = End

End – Start = Change

End – Change = Start

Willis & Fuson, 1988; Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI)

Addition and Subtraction structure

Task, F(1, 29) = 56.90, p<.001

Position, F(2, 58) = 18.03, p<.001
Operator, F(1, 29) = .42, n.s.
Addition and Subtraction structure

Task, F(1, 29) = 56.90, p<.001

Position, F(2, 58) = 18.03, p<.001
Operator, F(1, 29) = .42, n.s.
 Multiplication and Division Structure

Quantity 1: Units
Quantity 2: Groups
Q1 per Q2: Units per Group

Groups x Units per Group = Units

Units per Group x Groups = Units

Units ÷ Groups = Units per Group

Units ÷ Units per Group = Groups

Cognitively Guided Instruction (CGI)

Multiplication and Division Structure
Multiplication and Division Structure

Task, F(1, 29) = 319.94, p<.001

Position, F(1, 29) = 1622.77, p<.001
Operator, F(1, 29) = 47.72, p<.001
 The silent assumption

In order to solve, one must (at least



implicitly) understand structure…

True?


1.If students are proficient at solving,

will they be equally proficient in
structure identification? Solving ≠
Structure Mapping
2.Does student performance
differentiate according to structure
or solution method (operation)?
Structure matters!
 The silent assumption

In order to solve, one must (at least



implicitly) understand structure…

True?


1.If students are proficient at solving,

will they be equally proficient in
structure identification? Solving ≠
Structure Mapping
2.Does student performance
differentiate according to structure
or solution method (operation)?
Structure matters!
3.How do we train students to
appreciate structure?
 Training to see structure

• Explicitly teach procedure for a word

problem?
• Explicitly teach abstraction?
 e.g., “a + b = c” word problems


 <P1> has <a> <a.obj1> and gets <b> new <b.obj1>.

How many <c.obj1> does <P1> have now?


 <P1> was <a> <a.object1> <adj> and increased <b>

<b.object1>. How <adj> is <P1> now?
Instead of explicit teaching…
implicit Perceptual Learning

Varying
Viewpoints

Invariant
Structure
 Instead of explicit teaching…
implicit Perceptual Learning

Varying
Evan has 10 stickers Instances
and gets 8 new
stickers. How many
stickers does Evan
have now?

Martha has 11
bananas and gets
3 new bananas.
How many bananas Max has 2 sweaters
does Martha have and gets 7 new
now? sweaters. How many
sweaters does Max
have now? Invariant
Structure
 Instead of explicit teaching…
implicit Perceptual Learning

Varying
Evan has 10 stickers Instances
and gets 8 new
stickers. How many
stickers does Evan
have now?

<P1> has <a> <a.obj1> and gets

Martha
<b> new has<b.obj1>.
11 How many
bananas
<c.obj1>and does
gets <P1> have now?
3 new bananas.
How many bananas Max has 2 sweaters
does Martha have and gets 7 new
now? sweaters. How many
sweaters does Max
have now?
Invariant
Structure
 Implicit perceptual learning through mapping

• No explicit instruction about

structure – just corrective feedback
• 80% structure mapping questions,
20% solving
• 20 categories of these structures
– Practice with one type of structure
ends when they have mastered the
category (4 out of last 6 scattered
trials)
– All 30 participants mastered all 20
structural categories
 Assessment

• Two problems (one mapping, one

solving) from each structural type
was presented on the computer
• 40 problems total on pre- and
posttest
Accuracy By Problem Type

Test, F(1, 30) = 7.01, p<.05

Task, F(1, 30) = 58.97, p<.001
Reaction Time

t(30) = 3.94, p<.001

 Next step: Rigorous testing

• Will solving improve given practice

on mapping?
• Will mapping improve given practice
on solving?
• Transfer to new tasks:
– Writing down an equation for a given
word problem.
– Choosing the correct word problem
that goes with a particular equation
 The silent assumption

In order to solve, one must (at least



implicitly) understand structure…

True?


1.If students are proficient at solving,

will they be equally proficient in
structure identification? Solving ≠
Structure Mapping
2.Does student performance
differentiate according to structure
or solution method (operation)?
Structure matters!
3.How do we train students to
appreciate structure? Maybe
 What is it to learn mathematics?

M a th e m a tic S tu d e n t

m
ia n
t
Experts
See Patterns, Becoming an Expert
Represent Learning to See
Relationships, Attend Patterns,
to Change Represent
 Mathematic Relationships, Attend
to Change
s
Keepour eye on the prize…
Do we went to create solution experts or structural
experts?
Thank you!