4615-4713 - Chapter 2

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd
PROGRAMMING
CONCEPTS 1
CHAPTER 2
The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
PROGRAMMING
To code efficiently in assembly language for a
particular processor, the prerequisites are
a good knowledge of the internal architecture
of the processor and addressing modes
The Assembly Process

An assembler is a translator that translates
source instructions (in symbolic language)
into target instructions (in machine language)
on a one-to-one basis
Features of assemblers
Labels are used for memory addresses
Labels are used for constants
Macros are allowed
Instructions and Directives

Instructions are executable statements
Directives are non-executable
Directives are also called pseudo instructions.
Directives aid the assembly process.
What the assembler does

It takes the source code (in assembly
language) and
converts it to the object code in machine
language
ASSEMBLERS FOR x86

NASM, FASM, MASM, TASM and HLA
FASM and NASM can run under DOS, Linux
and Windows
TASM and MASM are very popular
It is found now that Windows 7, a new
64-bit operating system, does not
directly support 16-bit programs so 16
bit assemblers may not work with
Windows 7 directly
DOS
DOS stands for Disk Operating Systems. It
could be an acronym for any OS, but it is most

often used as a shorthand for MS-DOS
(Microsoft Disk Operating Systems).
BIOS and DOS function calls

A set of functions for using I/O devices
Can be used for displaying data
Can be used for inputting data from the
keyboard
The .EXIT command is a shorthand notation
for
MOV AH ,4CH
INT 21H
10
i) Read the keyboard with echo
MOV AH, 01
INT 21H
This call exits with the ASCII value of the key
pressed, being available in AL .
The key pressed is also echoed on the screen
.
11
DOS Function Call
DOS Function Call Contd.

ii) Read Keyboard without echo
MOV AH, 08
INT 21H
This call exits with the ASCII value of the key
pressed being available in AL .
The key pressed is not echoed on the
screen
12
iii) Write a character to the standard display
unit.
For this ,the ASCII value of the character to be
displayed should be in DL
MOV DL, S
MOV AH, 02
INT 21H
13
Displaying a character
STRING DISPLAY
iv) Display a character string on the standard
display unit
The logical address DS:DX should point to the
beginning of the string .
This is to be followed by the following
instructions
MOV AH, 09
INT 21H
14
Why MASM ?
Microsoft has written considerable
documentation
Third parties have written assembly language
reference manuals for MASM
The versions of MASM 6.0 and above have a
lot more features (aimed at simplification of
writing code) than previous versions
15
Here we use
MASM 6.14, which is DOS based
In this, DOS and BIOS interrupts can be used
MASM32, which is windows based
In this, DOS and BIOS interrupts cannot be
used.
16
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
PROGRAMMING STEPS
Write the code with the help of an editor
Open the DOS window
Go to the MASM and then to the BIN directory
Assemble the code
Link the code
Run the executable file
17
Memory Models
For defining segments
Dot models have short cuts
The tiny model is used when only one
segment is needed
To specify a segment, write
. MODEL MODEL NAME
18
Example 2.1 The Tiny Model

.MODEL TINY
.CODE
.STARTUP
MOV AL,67H
MOV BL,45H
ADD AL,BL
MOV DL,AL
.EXIT
END
19
Save it as tiny.asm
Open MASM and go to the BIN directory.
Use the following commands

ml tinym.asm
;for assembling and linking
ml/Fl tinym.asm ;for the list file
20
The result of assembling and

linking
C:\masm6.14\BIN>ml tinym.asm
Microsoft (R) Macro Assembler Version 6.14.8444
Copyright (C) Microsoft Corp 1981-1997. All rights reserved.
Assembling: tinym.asm
Microsoft (R) Segmented Executable Linker Version 5.60.339
Dec 5 1994
Copyright (C) Microsoft Corp 1984-1993. All rights reserved.
Object Modules [.obj]: tinym.obj /t
Run File [tinym.com]: "tinym.com"
List File [nul.map]: NUL
Libraries [.lib]:
Definitions File [nul.def]:
21
Example 2.3 Part of the List file

0000
0100
0102
0104
0106
B0 67
B3 45
02 C3
8A D0
.MODEL TINY
.CODE
MOV AL,67H
MOV BL,45H
ADD AL,BL
MOV DL,AL
.EXIT
END
22
Short cuts in the model

.EXIT
.STARTUP
The working of all these can be obtained by

using the .listall directive in the program
.EXIT gets translated to
MOV AH,4CH
INT 21H
23

24
Using the debugger

To enter the debugger, type debug
tinym.com
We get an underscore as the prompt
On typing r, we can see the contents of the
registers, before execution of the program
Now type u, which is the command for
unassembling
25
Example 2.5
C:\masm6.14\BIN>debugtinym.com
r
AX=0000BX=0000CX=010CDX=0000SP=0000BP=0000
SI=0000DI=0000
DS=13ADES=13ADSS=13BDCS=13BDIP=0100NVUPEIPL
NZNAPONC
13BD:0100B067MOVAL,67
u
13BD:0100B067MOVAL,67
13BD:0102B345MOVBL,45
13BD:010402C3ADDAL,BL
13BD:01068AD0MOVDL,AL
13BD:0108B44CMOVAH,4C
13BD:010ACD21INT21
26
COM and EXE files

A tiny model generates only a com file,
while any other memory model generates an

.exe file
27
Features of a com file
Size is limited to 64K

Only one segment, which is the code
segment
Data is defined in this code segment
Code starts at offset 0100 H,
Smaller file compared to .exe files
28
Example 2.7
29
Data definitions in MASM Table

2.1
30
The small model

Here two segments are used
A code segment and a data segment
31
Example 2.9a
32
Example 2.9b
33
34
Figure 2.1 Data segment with

labels and off sets corresponding to
Example 2.9
The DUP Directive

Used to replicate a given number of
characters
NUMS DB 10 DUP(0) fills up with 0s the
10 byte locations starting with the label
NUM
Other examples
STARS DB 5 DUP(#)
BLANK DB 10DUP(?)
WRDS DW 4 DUP(FF0FH)
35
Used to equate names to constants

The assembler just replaces the names by the
values mentioned
Examples:
TEMP
PRICE
EQU 34
EQU 199
36
The EQU Directive
Example 2.10
37
ORG is a directive which means origin

In the context of assembly language
programming, it can change the location of

storage of data or code in memory
38
The ORG Directive
Example 2.11a
39
Example 2.11b
40
Table 2.2 Other Models
41
42
Example 2.12 Full segment model
1. All labels should begin with a letter or the

special characters @,$ , _ and ?
2. A label can have 1 to 31 characters which
may be digits ,letters in upper or lower case
or the special characters at (@),dollar($) ,
underscore (_) ,dot(.) or question mark(?)
3. No reserved words of MASM may be used
4. Each label must be unique
43
General rules for writing assembly

language
Example 2.13
44

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Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

The Assembly Process

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

Instructions and Directives

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

What the assembler does

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

ASSEMBLERS FOR x86

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

could be an acronym for any OS, but it is most

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

BIOS and DOS function calls

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

The .EXIT command is a shorthand notation

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

i) Read the keyboard with echo

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

DOS Function Call

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DOS Function Call Contd.

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

iii) Write a character to the standard display

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

Example 2.1 The Tiny Model

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

Use the following commands

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

The result of assembling and

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

Example 2.3 Part of the List file

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd

Short cuts in the model

The working of all these can be obtained by

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

The x86 Microprocessor - Lyla B Das

Copyright Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd