Biology Revision.

The Lungs

There are loads of alveoli that are supplied with gases via a system of tubes (trachea,
splitting into two bronchi one for each lung and branches coming off the bronchi called
bronchioles. Alveoli and capillaries are one cell thick. This means short diffusion distance so
diffusion can take place faster so theres a larger blood supply. The alveoli has a large surface
area, this means more particles can be exchanged at the same time.
Our body needs to make sure that it maintains a steep concentration gradient.
1. Breathing supplies the lungs with a constant supply of oxygen.
2. While the blood takes the oxygen away to the rest of the body, another supply of oxygen
fills the alveoli and the process starts again. This is how we maintain a steep
concentration gradient.
Alveoli is surrounded by surfactant (lube). This reduces the surface tension of the lung tissue
and counteracts the tendency of the alveoli to recoil inwards and stick together after each
expiration.
Excess mucus:
Mucus blocks bronchioles, therefore limited supply of oxygen to alveoli, so limited gas
exchange. Over inflation damages the alveoli. It loses its elasticity and surface area.

Proteins

Proteins are made up of monomers linked together. The monomers of proteins are amino
acids. A polypeptide bond is formed when two or more amino acids join together. Proteins
Primary
Sequence
of amino acids in a polypeptide chain bonded by peptide
are
made Structure:
up of one more
polypeptides.
bonds.
Secondary Structure: Oxygen left from the carboxyl group and hydrogen left from the
amino group get attracted to each other to form hydrogen bonds. This makes an alpha helix
or beta pleated sheet.
Alpha Helix: the polypeptide chain is coiled tightly in the fashion of spring. The backbone
(carboxyl&amino) of the peptide form the inner part of the coil while the R groups extend
outwards from the coil electrostatic forces.
Beta Pleated Sheet: This is a looser than alpha helix but theyre straight (zigzaged)
Tertiary Structure: The secondary structure is coiled further. The tertiary structure of a
protein is the way in which a protein coils up to form a precise 3D shape. This is because of
the interaction between the R groups. The R chains carry out 3 types of bonding:
Cystine Bonds: Strongest out of all bonds. Only occurs when sulfur is present.
Ionic Bonds: Occur when 2 opposite charges join together.
Hydrogen Bonds: When hydrogen from an R group joins together with an oxygen from
another R group.
Quaternary Structure: This structure is found in proteins containing more than one
polypeptide chain. The individual polypeptide chains can arrange themselves into a variety
of quaternary shapes. E.g. haemoglobin 4 chains (2alpha, 2beta).
What happens when you change one amino acid? When one amino acid is changed, the
sequence of the primary structure is altered. This means that the number of hydrogen bonds
between the backbone interactions will change. The sequence of the side chains will also
differ which means the R group interactions will differ, the hydrogen, cystine and ionic bonds
will change. This results in different types of folding and a different 3D globular shape
Globular: Globular proteins are round, compact proteins made up of multiple polypeptide

Phosphate Group
Phosphodiester
Bond
Glycerol
Ester Bonds

Cell Membranes

Phospholipids have a polar phosphate group which are hydrophilic

and will face the aqueous solution. The fatty acid tails are non-polar
and will move away from the aqueous solution because theyre
Fatty Acid
hydrophobic. As both tissue fluid and cytoplasm is aqueous,
phospholipids form a bilayer. Bilayers only allow small polar, non-polar
and fats through. Larger polar molecules (vital chemicals i.e. glucose)
not able to from
pass athrough
the membrane.
molecules
use
Fluid Mosaic Model: are
Phospholipids
continuous
bilayer. ThisThese
bilayer
is fluid because
Protein side
Channels.
the phospholipids are swaying
to side (moving). Protein molecules are scattered through
the bilayer like tiles on a mosaic. Because the bilayer is fluid, the proteins sway around with
them. Cholesterol Is a type of lipid and is present in the membrane. It fits between the
phospholipids forming bonds with them. This makes the membrane more rigid. Some lipids
have carbohydrates attached, these are glycolipids. Some proteins have carbohydrates
attached,
theseare
aremade
calledfrom
glycoproteins.
Triglycerides
one molecule of glycerol with three fatty acids Glycerol
attached to it. Fatty acid molecules have long tails made of hydrocarbons. Ester Bonds
They are hydrophobic and insoluble in water. All fatty acids have the same
Fatty Acid
structure, but the hydrocarbon tails varies. Triglycerides are formed by
condensation reactions and are broken up by hydrolysis reactions. The fatty
acids are joined to the glycerol by ester bonds. A hydrogenO atom on the
CR
H
O
glycerol bonds with the OH group on the fatty acid, releasing
water. The H
OH
There are two types of lipids:
H C OH
HC OC
reverse happens in hydrolysis.
Saturated: Animal fats e.g. butter they H C OH
R
dont have any double bonds between carbons. H C OH
H C OH
They are straight lines chains, which allow them
H

to pack closely together, restricting too much

H C OH
movement less fluid.

H
Unsaturated: Plants e.g. oils have double
bonds which cause the chain to kink. Kinked tails

Proteins

Protein channels help molecules pass through the membrane.

Intrinsic Protein: embedded and extended across the entire cell membrane. It transports
large and small polar substances across. How do molecules fit inside?:
Carrier Protein: molecule binds onto a specific binding site on the protein. The protein
changes shape, therefore the molecules cross the membrane.
Channel Protein: proteins have receptors that have specific shapes that will only allow a
particular type of molecule to pass through and will open up with the correct substance fits
onto its binding site.
Extrinsic Proteins: attached to the top of bilayer. They may be enzymes catalysing
reactions in the cytoplasm. They also act as receptors by having specific binding sites where
hormones or enzymes can bind, stimulating reactions within the cytoplasm. This binding then
triggers other events in the cell or other cells (cell to cell signalling).
Glycoproteins & Glycolipids: carbohydrates are found on the outer surface (branches) of
membranes, and are attached to the proteins or sometimes the phospholipids. Proteins with
carbohydrates are called glycoproteins whereas phospholipids attached to carbohydrates are
called glycolipids. Glycoproteins form a cell coat out the cell membrane. The glycocalyx is
involved in protection and cell recognition. The carbohydrate stabilises membrane structure
by forming hydrogen bonds with water molecules. Glycoproteins and glycolipids both have:
Antigens for cell recognition.
Binding sites for chemicals, drugs, hormones, neurotransmitters and antibodies.
Receptors for cell signalling and triggers chemical reactions inside cytoplasm.
CONS
Cholesterol: binds PROS
the fatty acid tails together. Makes the membrane
more rigid because
tails
are less
able to move.
decreases
permeability
of the
membrane
the gaps are
Without
cholesterol,
a cell This
would
need a cell
Too much
can
make the as
phospholipid
layer
decreased between phosopholipds
wall.
too rigid not allowing enough nutrients to

Transport Across
Membranes

Simple Diffusion: movement of particles from a high to low concentration. Molecules that
diffuse naturally are: small uncharged particles e.g. oxygen, small polar particles e.g. water
and fat particles.
The shorter the diffusion distance, the quicker diffusion is.
The steeper the gradient, the quicker diffusion takes place.
The more surface area, the quicker diffusion happens per moment time.
Facilitated Diffusion: moves large or small polar molecules. These molecules cant pass
through simple diffusion, so they need protein channels.
Channel Proteins: moves charged particles.
Carrier Proteins: move large molecules. The protein changes shape to let the molecule
through.
Osmosis: movement from water from dilute to concentrated. Osmosis occurs across a semipermeable membrane. This doesnt need a protein channel because water is a small polar
molecule.
Isotonic: balanced.
Hypotonic Solution: dilute solution.
Hypertonic Solution: concentrated solution.
Active Transport: movement of all substances from a low to high concentration. Goes
against concentration gradient, so requires ATP. This also involves protein channels.
Endocytosis: transport of materials into a cell. Materials are enclosed by a vesicle. Its
usually digested and the small product molecules are absorbed. They then separate into tiny
molecules which then travel alone thought different types of diffusion. USES ENERGY.
Exocytosis: transport of materials out of a cell. Materials must be in a vesicle to be
exported. Hormones and digestion enzymes are secreted by exocytosis. USES ENERGY.

Protecting your Lungs

Mucus is sticky and relatively runny so that its easily moved up by the airways by the cilia
that sweeps upwards to the back of your throat. Majority of mucus is swallowed. Acids and
enzymes in stomach digest it.
CFTR Protein: helps to control the viscosity or stickiness of mucus that lines the epithelial
cells of the airways, digestive and reproductive systems. If the mucus in the airways is too:
Sticky: the cilia cant beat and remove the mucus which clogs up the airways causing
coughing which damages your lungs. Mucus also provides conditions for bacteria to grow
Apical Membrane Mucus lies here. Too Sticky:
(warmth, nutrients and moisture).
Too Runny:
Apical Membrane Mucus lies here.
H2O
Na
(Dilute)
CFTR Channel
Runny: mucus
Na
Na Channel
can
flood
the
airways.
Cl
Cl
CFTR Channel
Na Channel
Opened. Closed.

Na goes
through
channels via
facilitated
diffusion.
Na
Na

H2O
Water
.
H2O
follows
concentrat
ed via
H2O
osmosis.

Cl
Cl gets attracted
to Na to make
salt. Electrical
Gradient.

Water
Na gets
follows
attracted to Cl
concentrat
to make salt.
ed via
Electrical
osmosis.
Na
Gradient.

Cl

Na

Cl

H2O
Na

(Concentrated)
Basal Membrane

Cl

Na
Cl

Na

Na

1. Sodium diffuses through sodium

channels in the apical membrane.
2. Chloride diffuses down the electrical
gradient.
3. H2O is drawn out of the cell and mucus
by osmosis due to high salt
concentration in the basal.

Opened.

Na

H2O

Na
Na

Closed.

1.

Na

H2O
Na Cl
H2O
Cl
H2O
H2O

Cl

Cl goes
through
Basal Membrane
channels via
Cl diffuses throughActive
CFTR channels
transport.

in the

basal membrane.
2. Na diffuses down the electrical gradient
into the mucus.
3. Elevated salt concentration in the mucus
draws water out of the cell by osmosis.

Mucus and Cystic Fibrosis

Non-Functioning CFTR Protein: CF is caused by a mutation in the gene that codes for CFTR. It
causes a dysfunctional protein meaning different folding of amino acid chains producing a different
binding site and globular 3D shape. It transports chloride atoms out of cells, this causes water to
move, which makes mucus watery. Mutant CFTR makes mucus more sticky as water cant travel to
it. This causes problems for the digestive, reproductive and respiratory systems.
Digestive System:
Tube that connects the pancreas to the small intestine can become blocked, preventing
digestive enzymes from reaching the small intestine. This reduces the ability to digest food and
so fewer nutrients can be absorbed. This means they can fail to put on body mass.
The mucus can cause cysts to form in the pancreas. These reduce the production of enzymes.
Trapped digestive enzymes damage the pancreatic cells that produce insulin resulting in
diabetes.
Reproductive System:
In men, the tubes connecting the testicle to the penis are absent in some sufferers and can
become blocked by mucus in others. This means that any sperm produced cant reach the penis
and therefore ejaculate.
In women, thickened cervical mucus can prevent the sperm from reaching the egg. The sperm
has to travel through the mucus to reach the egg. Thick mucus reduces the movement of
sperm, reducing its chances of reaching the egg.
Respiratory System:
Mucus clogs up airways so its too heavy for cilia to beat out. As bacteria are trapped in mucus,
its an ideal environment for bacteria to reproduce so it increases respiratory infections.
Some airways can be completely blocked by the mucus so gas exchange cant take place. This
means surface area has reduced, causing breathing difficulties.
Severe coughing to remove mucus means damage to the lungs, so less elacticity.

Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being used up.
Catabolic Reactions: reactions that break down substances and release energy e.g.
respiration and digestion.
Anabolic Reactions: reactions that consume energy. These reactions build larger, more
complex molecules from smaller ones e.g. photosynthesis and muscle growth.
Most chemical reactions require an input of energy to change or break bonds within the substrate.
The input of energy is called the activation energy. Enzymes lower the activation energy and so
speeding up the reaction. When a substrate fits into the enzymes active site, it forms an enzymesubstrate complex, this is what lowers the activation energy. Two reasons why:
If two substrate molecules need to be joined, being attached to the enzyme holds them close
together, reducing any repulsion between the molecules so they can bond more easily.
If the enzyme is catalysing a breakdown reaction, fitting into the active site puts a strain on
the bonds in the substrate, so the substrate molecules break up more easily.
Specific 3D Structure: They usually only catalyse one reaction. This is because only one
substrate will fit its active site. The active site is determined by the enzymes 3D structure which is
determined by the primary structure. Each enzyme will have a different 3D shape and active site.
If the substrate shape isnt matching the active site, the reaction wont happen. If the 3D shape of
the protein is altered in any way, the shape of the active site will change. This means the
substrate wont fit into the active site and the enzyme will no longer be able to function.
Variables that Effect Enzymes:
Temperature
pH
Enzyme Concentration
Substrate Concentration
continues next page.

Temperature:
Optimum temperature is the maximum that can be achieved per moment time. The kinetic
energy increases resulting in more collisions with greater energy so, more enzyme-substrate
complexes formed. When temperature increases past the optimum, kinetic energy and
collisions are at their greatest but rate of reaction is decreasing, less successful enzymesubstrate complexes are made. This is because when enzymes gain energy, they begin to
vibrate. Too much energy causes the hydrogen bonds to break and other forces.
pH:
If the active site becomes flooded with hydrogen (positive) or hydroxyl (negative) ions, it can
prevent the enzyme and the substrate from fitting together because
Enzyme Concentration:
The more enzyme molecules there are in a solution, the more likely a substrate molecule is
to collide with one and form an enzyme-substrate complex. So increasing the concentration
of the enzymes increases the rate of reaction. But if the amount of substrate is limited, there
comes a point when theres more than enough enzyme molecules to deal with all the
available substrate, so adding more enzymes has no further effect.
Substrate Concentration:
At a low substrate concentration, theres many active sites that are available. This means the
reaction rate is low. When more substrate molecules are added, more enzyme-substrate
complexes can be made per moment time. Eventually, increasing the substrate
concentration will have no further effect. There will be more than enough substrates, but not
enough enzymes.

DNA
A
A
A

DNA

is a polymer of nucleotides. Nucleotides are made up of:

Phosphate.
Sugar Deoxyribose.
Nitrogenous Base adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine.

phosphodiester
bond
condensation
reaction

Protein Synthesis

Transcription:
1. DNA uncoils and the hydrogen bonds
break between the bases, making two
separate strands.
2. One strand is then used as a template to
make an RNA copy, called MRNA. The
template strand is called the antisense
strand. We use the strand we dont want
to get the complementary base pairs.
3. Free nucleotides from the nucleoplasm
line up next to the antisense strand but
dont form bonds.
4. The antisense strand then recoils back
with the original DNA. The MRNA then
forms bonds with each other via
condensation reactions to make
phosphodiester bonds.
5. This new MRNA moves out of the nucleus
and attaches to the ribosome in the
cytoplasm.

Translation:
1. MRNA moves out of the cell and goes into
the ribosome.
2. TRNA has codons on one end of it. It
attaches itself to the MRNAs codon that
is complimentary.
3. The TRNA molecule leaves, leaving the
amino acid left behind. Amino acids are
joined my peptide bonds.
4. This process continues producing a
polypeptide chain until theres a stop
codon on the MRNA molecule.
5. The polypeptide chain leaves the
ribosome and translation is complete.
TRNA:
. Each TRNA molecule has a binding site at
one end, where a specific amino acid
attaches.
. Each TRNA molecule has a specific
sequence of 3 bases at one end of it
called codons.

Genetic Testing

Gene screening involves analysing DNA to see is it contains alleles for genetic disorders. The
3 main uses are:
Identification of Carriers:
Carrier testing is offered to people with a family history of genetic disorders. Couples can be
tested before having children to determine the chances of children having the disorder. It
allows people to make informed decisions about whether to have a baby or not. Carrier
testing raises a lot of social and ethical issues:
Finding out youre a carrier may cause emotional stress of affect the ability to find a
partner.
Theyre not always 100% accurate.
Other genetic abnormalities could be found which causes more stress.
The results could be used by employers or life insurance companies resulting in genetic
discrimination.
Pre-Implantation Genetic Disorders (PGD):
Carried out on embryos produced by IVF. It involves screening embryos for genetic disorders
before theyre implanted into the woman. It reduces the chances of having a baby with a
genetic disorder, only embryos without disorders will be implanted. PGD also raises social
and ethical issues:
Can be used to find out other characteristics leading to designer babies .
Amniocentesis:
a sample
of amniotic
fluid
Chronic Villi Sampling: cells are taken
False results could
provide
wrong information.
is
taken using
a fine needle. The fluid
from the placenta tissue.
Prenatal
Testing:
Done at 8-12 weeks.
contains fetal cells which have DNA.
It involves screening unborn babies for genetic disorders. Theyre offered to pregnant women
Done at 15-17 weeks 3 weeks to get
1-2% miscarriage.
with a family history of genetic disorders. There are two types of tests:
No chance of infection.
results back.
0.5-1% change of miscarriage.
Small chance of infection.

Gene Therapy

Involves altering alleles inside of cells. How you do this depends on whether the disorder is
caused by recessive or a dominant allele.
If caused by 2 recessive alleles, you can add a working dominant allele to make up for
them.
If caused by a dominant allele, you can silence it by sticking DNA in the middle so it
doesnt work anymore.
Alleles are inserted into cells via vectors. They transport virus/liposomes around the body.
There are two types of gene therapy:
Semantic Therapy: changes alleles in body cells.
Germ Line Therapy: changes alleles in sex cells.
1. Isolate the required gene using restriction endonuclease enzyme.
2. Insert allele into vector (virus/liposome) which transports the allele to the DNA ready to
be transcribed and translated.
3. Pick a plasmid. Plasmid is a ring, so you need to use restriction enzymes to cut out to fit
the allele.
4. DNA ligase
is an enzyme
that
sticks
to the vector.
This is now
calledis removed
Liposomes:
Plasmid
combined
with
tinythe allele
Viruses:
DNA sequence
of virus
recombinant
DNA. liposomes. Cells in the and replaced with normal allele which then
spheres
of lipids called
body
by ainto
bilayer
of either by goes
into
DNA ready to T&T, it does this
5. It are
thensurrounded
gets inserted
the body
aerosol
orthe
injections.
phospholipids which only allow small polar,
by using a promoter sequence. If the virus
non-polar and fat substances through.
doesnt get to the DNA it still has the
Liposomes are fats. The method of transport
promoter sequence so it can T&T randomly,
for liposomes is aerosol.
but then it might be seen as foreign so it gets
Seeks out target cells.
engulfed.
Dont carry viruses.
Can carry many genes so corrective rate is
Cant carry as many genes as viruses
faster.

Meselson and Stahl

Before this experiment, people were unsure if DNA replication was semi-conservative or
conservative. They showed DNA replication using the semi-conservative method. Their
experiment used two isotopes of nitrogen heavy nitrogen (15N) and light nitrogen (14N).
1. Two samples of bacteria were grown, one containing light nitrogen and the other with
heavy nitrogen. As the bacteria reproduced, they took up nitrogen to help make
mononucleotides for new DNA. So the nitrogen gradually became part of the bacterias
DNA.
2. A sample of DNA was taken from each bacteria. The DNA from the heavy nitrogen settled
lower down the tube than the DNA from the light nitrogen bacteria.
3. Then the bacteria grown in the heavy nitrogen was taken out and put into only light
nitrogen. The bacteria was left for one round of replication and then another DNA sample
was taken.
4. If replication was conservative, the original heavy DNA would settle at the bottom and
the new light DNA would settle at the top.
5. If replication was semi-conservative, the new DNA molecules would contain one strand of
heavy-light DNA and another strand of light-light DNA. So DNA would settle down in the
middle and on the top.
6. DNA settling down in the middle showed that the DNA molecules contained a mixture of
heavy and light nitrogen.

Water

Water has a variety of unusual properties because of attractions between the polar
molecules. The slightly negative regions of the molecule are attracted to the slightly positive
regions of nearby molecules forming a hydrogen bond. Each water molecule can form
hydrogen bonds with up to 4 neighbours. They break and reform all the time.
Water transports substances. Substances can be transported more easily if theyre dissolved
in water. A molecule of water is one atom of Oxygen joined to two atoms of Hydrogen by
shared electrons. Because the shared negative hydrogen electrons are pulled towards the
oxygen atom, the other side of each unshared negative electrons on the oxygen atom, give it
a slightly negative charge. This makes water a dipolar molecule. They negatively charged
oxygen atoms of the water attract the positively charged hydrogen atoms of other water
molecules. This attraction is called hydrogen bonding.
Cohesion is the attraction between molecules of the same type. Water molecules are very
cohesive because theyre dipolar. This helps water to flow, making it great for transporting
molecules.
A lot of important substances in biological reactions are ionic (e.g. salt). This means theyre
made from one positively charged ion and one negatively charged ion. Because water is
dipolar, the positive end of the water molecule will be attracted to the negative ion and the
negative end of the water will be attracted to the positive ion. This means the molecules will
be totally surrounded by water theyve dissolved. So waters dipole nature makes it useful
as a solvent for other polar molecules.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are made from monosaccharides. Most carbohydrates are large, complex
molecules composed of long chains of monosaccharides.
Glucose is a monosaccharide with six carbon atoms in each molecule. Glucoses structure is
related to its function as the main energy source in animals and plants. Its structure makes it
soluble so it can easily transport, and its chemical bonds contain lots of energy.
C = 3 = Triose e.g. glyceraldehyde: intermediates in
respiration and photosynthesis.
C= 4 = Tetrose Rare.
C = 5 = Pentose e.g ribose: used in protein synthesis.
C = 6 = Hexose e.g glucose: used in respiration.
Monosaccharides have the formula (CH2O)n where n = number
of carbons.
Monosaccharides are joined together by glycosidic bonds in a condensation reaction with H
from carbon 1 and OH from carbon 4. The reverse of this is a hydrolysis reaction. When two
monosaccharides join, they form a disaccharide. Polysaccharides form when 3 or more
monosaccharides join together.
Amylose: >30 glucose monomers joined by 1,4 glycosidic bonds. Helical shape and joined
together by hydrogen bonds.
Amylopectin: joined by 1,4 AND 1,6 glycosidic bonds with loads of side branches.
Glycogen: similar to amylopectin but more branches which are also shorter.
Cellulose: joined by beta glucose 1,4 bonds.

Starch: Storage material in plants. Cells get enough energy from glucose. Plants store
excess glucose as starch (when a plant needs more energy, it breaks down starch to release
the glucose). Starch is a mixture of two polysaccharides: Amylose and Amylopectin.
Amylose: coiled structure which makes it compact so its good for storage because you
can fit more inside a small space.
Amylopectin: side branches allow the enzymes that break down starch to easily access
the bonds. This means glucose can be released more faster.
Starch is also insoluble so it doesnt cause water to enter cells by osmosis (doesnt interfere
with water balance).
Glycogen: storage material in animals. Animal cells get energy from glucose. They store
excess glucose as glycogen. Its structure is similar to amylopectin but has many more side
branches, meaning glucose can be released quickly. Its also a very compact molecule so
good for storage. Glycogen is also insoluble in water so doesnt effect water by osmosis. Its
a large molecule so it can store loads of energy.

Structure of the Heart

Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the vena cava which is a vein. As the atrium fills
up, the tricuspid valve pushes open allowing the blood to enter the right ventricle. As the right
ventricle fills up, the semilunar valves open and send the blood into the pulmonary arteries, which
takes the deoxygenated blood into the lungs to get oxygen. Once the blood becomes oxygenated, the
blood is then transported to the left atrium via pulmonary veins. Once the left atrium fills up, the
bicuspid valve opens allowing the blood to rush down the left ventricle. This then gets filled up with
blood and opens the aortic semilunar valve which transports the blood to the aorta which takes the
blood to the rest of the body.
The left side of the heart has thicker, more muscular walls than the right because it needs to
contract powerfully to pump the blood all the way around the body. The right side only needs to get
to the lungs.
The ventricles have thicker walls than the atrium because they have to push out blood from the
heart, whereas the atria just need to push out blood to the ventricles which is mostly passive
anyway.
The atrioventricular (tricuspid and bicuspid) valves link the atrium to the ventricles to prevent back
flow.
Semilunar valves link the ventricles to the pulmonary artery and aorta and stop blood flowing back
into the heart after the ventricles contract.
Atrial Systole:
The heart if full of blood and the ventricles are relaxed (diastole). Both the atria contract and blood
passes down to the ventricles. The atrioventricular valves open due to the blood pressure, 70% of the
blood flows passively down to the ventricles so the atria dont have to contract a great amount.
Ventricular Systole:
The atria relax. The ventricle walls contract forcing the blood out. The pressure of the blood closes the
atrioventricular valves. The pressure of the blood opens the semilunar valves. Blood passes into the
aorta and pulmonary arteries.
Diastole:
The ventricles and atria relax. Pressure in the ventricles fall below that in the arteries. Blood under high
pressure in the arteries causes the semilunar valves to shut.

Blood Vessels
Arteries

Veins

Lumen:

Narrow lumen because there

needs to be more room for
muscle.

Wide because theres less

muscle.

Walls:

Thick walls to withstand a

high blood pressure.

Thinner walls because veins

dont work under a high
pressure.

Collagen & Elastic Fibres:

Withstand a high blood

pressure.

Less because they dont need

to withstand a high blood
pressure.

Smooth Muscle:

Less friction so blood can

move more smoothly.

Doesnt need to withstand a

high blood pressure.

Valves:
No valves except aorta and
Valves to prevent backflow.
semilunar.
Capillaries:
These are the smallest. Theyre where metabolic exchange occurs. There are networks of
capillaries in tissue called capillary beds, which increase the surface area for exchange.
Capillary walls are one cell thick which speeds up diffusion.

Atherosclerosis and
Thrombosis

Atherosclerosis: hardening of artery walls.

Thrombosis: blood clot formation.
Ischemia: the restriction in blood supply to the tissues. This causes a shortage of oxygen
and glucose needed for respiration to keep tissues alive.
Coronary Heart Disease (CHD): blocks an artery that supplies blood to the heart. This
may cause:
Angina: is chest pain due to ischemia of the heart muscle.
Myocardial Infarction: the heart muscle is supplied with blood by the coronary arteries.
The blood contains oxygen needed by the heart muscle cells to carry out respiration. If a
coronary artery becomes completely blocked by a clot, an area of the heart muscle will
be cut off from the blood supply.
Atherosclerosis:
Thrombosis:
1. Artery walls get damaged.
1. Artery walls gets damaged.
2. This causes an inflammatory response,
2. Blood platelets get into contact with the
this is when white blood cells rush to the
damaged wall, causing the platelets to
infected area.
become sticky.
3. The damaged wall gets a cascade of
3. A protein called Thromboplastin is
chemicals into the blood like cholesterol,
realised from the blood vessel.
calcium salts and fibrous tissue.
Thromboplastin triggers the conversion
4. All these chemicals form a plaque called
of Prothrombin (a soluble protein) to
Atheroma inside the artery causing the
Thrombin. This then catalyses the
lumen to narrow.
conversation of Fibrogen to Fibrin which
5. If the lumen is narrower, this leads to a
is insoluble.
higher blood pressure as blood cant flow
4. The Fibrin fibres tangle together to form a
as easily. This also causes the walls to
mesh which cause blood cells to trap,
lose its elasticity.
forming a blood clot.

Risk Factors

Cholesterol: is a fatty substance. Having too much in your blood can increase the rick of serious
health conditions. Its carried in your blood by proteins and when 2 combine, theyre called
lipoproteins. There are 2 types:
Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL): carries cholesterol to the liver. If theres too much, it can
build on artery walls.
High Density Lipoprotein
Causes: (HDL): carries cholesterol away from the liver where its broken
Riskdown
of: as waste products.
Unhealthy diet.

Atherosclerosis.
Smoking.
Myocardial Infarction.
Having diabetes or high blood pressure.
Stroke.
Family history.

High Blood Pressure: measures how strongly blood presses against artery walls. If the pressure
is too high, it puts a strain on your arteries and heart. Blood pressure is measures in 2 ways:
Systolic Pressure: pressure of the blood when your heart beats to pump blood out
Diastolic Pressure: pressure of the blood when your heart rests between beats.

ost at risk:
Prevent:Lose weight.
Exercising.
Overweight.
Eating a balanced and healthy diet.
Family history.
Cutting down on alcohol.
African or Caribbean descent.
Cutting down on caffeine.
High salt intake.
Cutting down on salt.
Not enough fruit and vegetables.
Not enough exercise.
High caffeine intake.
High alcohol intake.
Ages 65 and over.
Continues on next page

Smoking: increases the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, which include CHD and
stroke.
Risks:
Smoking damages the lining of your arteries leading to a build up of fatty plaque
(atheroma) which narrows the artery. This causes angina, myocardial infarction or a
stroke.
Carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke reduces the amount of oxygen in your blood. This
means your heart has to pump harder to supply the blood with the oxygen it needs.
Nicotine in cigarettes stimulate your body to produce adrenaline which makes your heart
beat faster and raises your blood pressure.
Blood is more likely to clot which increases the risk of myocardial infarction or stroke.

Treating CVD
Benefits

Risks

Antihypertensitives:
reduces high blood pressure.
These drugs include
diuretics (causes more urine
to be produced so reduce the
volume of blood). Beta
blockers (reduce strength of
heart beat) and
vasodilators (widen the
blood vessels.

Different types work in

different ways so they can
be given in combination to
reduce blood pressure.

Abnormal heart rhythms.

Fainting
Headaches.
Drowsiness
This may all be due to the
blood pressure becoming too
low.

Statins: reduces amount of

cholesterol absorbed by the
gut. It reduces atheroma
formation. You can buy foods
with added statins.

Reduces risk of
cardiovascular disease.

Anticoagulants: reduces
formation of blood clots. This
means clots are less likely to
form at sites of damage in
artery walls. So less chance
of a blood vessel becoming
blocked by a clot.

Platelet Inhibitors: reduces

Can reduce absorption of

some vitamins in the gut.
Muscle pain.
Memory loss.

Can be used to treat

people who already have
blood clots and they
prevent the clots from
getting larder and
prevents any new clots
forming (they cant get rid
of existing clots).

Reduction in blood clotting

can cause internal
bleeding which can lead to
fainting.
Allergic reactions.
Weakened bones.
Swelling of tissues.

Lowers risk of heart attack

Rashes.

Energy Budget

Organisms needs a supply of energy so they can grow, move, reproduce etc.. In animals,
energy is provided by food. Energy Budget is the term used to describe the amount of
energy taken in by an organism and the amount of energy being used up. A person should
take in the same amount of energy as they use up should be balanced.
Weight Gain: energy intake is higher than energy output, so excess energy will be turned
into fat reserves so the person will gain weight.
Weight Loss: energy intake is lower than energy output, so the body will turn fat reserves
into energy. So the person will lose weight.
Metabolism: amount of energy needed to maintain essential body processes e.g. heart.
BMI (Body Mass Index):
Waist to Hip Ratio:

BODY MASS (kg) / (HEIGHT)2

WAIST CIRCUMFRENCE / HIP CIRCUMFRENCE