MEDIA AND

TECHNOLOGY:
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
NURDIYANA ABD HALIM

GENERAL OVERVIEW
Media research literatures
methodology appears robust (Oakes,
2009).
Investigators are employing a variety
of measures, designs and models to
specific problems.
Strengths and limitation of studies in
media and technology effect has been
noted by the researchers.

SAMPLING
Most study on media effects have an
adequate number of sample, except for a
few studies.
Some of the studies used people from
certain region, with certain native language.
For example, a study on cyberbullying used
English-speaking youth in the US as sample.
Not all languages have the word bullying.
Limits generalizibility.

Random sampling.
issue on sampling on the basis of availability or
cooperation(convenience sampling).

DESIGN
Cross sectional design is one of the most
popular research design used in this area.
Most researches claimed that the crosssectional design is one of the limitation of
their study:
Limited the predictive power of finding or the
direction of the relationship between
variables.
No direct measure of age changes.
Confounding of age and time of birth (cohort)

DESIGN
Emphasis on longitudinal study, as an
alternative to cross-sectional design:
Ability to study the long term effect of media
and technology on development.
Limitation:- attrition or selective dropout.
- cost and time consuming.

Correlational study:
For example, both TV viewing and
aggression were measured as they naturally
occurred, to see whether scores on one index
covaried with scores on the other.
correlation does not imply causation.

MEASUREMENT
Outcome measures are diverse, and include
(a) psychometric scales tapping latent
measures (b) existing behaviours and (c)
health mediators and outcomes.
Limitations in the current ability to measure
exposure hamper our understanding of media
effects. For example, the use of global
estimates which may be inaccurate and lead
to bias.
The field lacks of operational definition
(Rapporteur, 2006). For example, definitions of
cyber bullying vary widely, contributing to an
inconsistency in findings across study.

MEASUREMENT
The most robust studies in the effect
of media come from experimental
trials (Christakis & Zimmerman, 2009):
Maximizes accuracy of measurement
and comparability across participants.
Experimenter expectation/bias
The lab environments differ from the
real life settings; behaviours measured
in the lab may not be generalizable.
Reduce the external validity.

MEASUREMENT
Verbal report approach in studying
media effect:
Results in most study are based on single
source of information; self report of either
only parents or children.
Multi-informant approach were seldom
used.
Verbal reports are not direct measures of
behaviour, and they may be sometime
inaccurate.

ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM
APPROACH
Emphasized on the
contexts within
which development
takes place, and on
interrelations
among different
contexts that are
important to a
childs
development.

ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM
APPROACH
An ecological perspective is not a theory,
but a perspective from which processes
work (Rapporteur, 2006).
Researcher would dig much deeper into the
patterns of social interactions and
relationships that influence development.
Most of the finding of studies in media
effect are context specific, therefore
ecological approach is necessary to
interpret them.

OTHER METHODOLOGICAL
ISSUES
Undervalue of causal inference in
observational design (Oakes, 2009).
Current distinctions among media are
platform-based; based on the kind of
technology that determines the way they
operate, are affectd by the rapid arrival
of new technologies (Rapporteur, 2006) .
General assumptions that individuals will
respond in similar ways when they see
the same media (Gauntlett, 2005).

OTHER METHODOLOGICAL
ISSUE
The notions of children glued to the
box has come under attack in recent
years. It was found that half of the
time the television is on, the
audience is doing something else
(Gauntlett,2005).

CONCLUSION
Research in media and technology has put a
huge emphasis on longitudinal study to look at
the long term effect of media exposure, while
experimental trial remain as the most robust
studies in the field.
Exposure measurement appears fairly
sophisticated, as investigators clearly
appreciate the limitations of the measurement
that has been used.
New and different methodologies are necessary
to ask and answer new questions and to
provide new perspectives on old questions
(Anderson & Hanson,2009).

REFERENCES
Gauntlett, D. (2005). Moving experiences: media effects and
beyond (2nd ed.). Eastleigh,UK. John Libbey Publication.
Rapporteur, A.B. (2006). Studying media effects on children
and youth: Improving methods and measures, Workshop
summary. The National Academies Press. Washingtion D.C.
Oakes, J.M. (2009). The effect of media on children: A
methodological assessment from a social epidemiologist.
American Behavioral Scientist, 52:1136-1151.
Christakis, D.A. & Zimmerman, F.J. (2009). Young children and
media: Limitations of current knowledge and future directions
for research. American Behavioral Scientist, 52:1177-1184.
Anderson, D.R. & Hanson, K.G. (2009). Children, media and
methodology. American Behavioral Scientist, 52:1204-1219.