Chapter 11

Fracture mechanics
Subjects of interest
Introduction/ objectives
Stress intensity factor
Determination of fracture
toughness
Fracture toughness and design
Plasticity correction
Crack opening displacement
curve
R
Probabilistic
aspects of fracture mechanics

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Objectives

This chapter provides fundamental backgrounds of

fracture mechanics and its use for the understanding of
brittle fracture.
Different approaches used for determining fracture
toughness of materials will be discussed.
The application of fracture mechanics are
emphasised
for the selection of materials for the required applications.

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Introduction

Griffith proposed that an existing

crack will propagate when the
released elastic strain energy is at
least equal to the energy required
to create the new crack surface.

2E s

f
2a

Irwin later modified the Griffith theory by replacing

the term 2p with the potential strain energy
release rate G , giving the expression as follows;
Irwin showed that G is measurable and can be
related to the stress intensity factor, K, obtained
from the sharp crack fracture toughness test.
The critical condition to which the crack
propagates to cause global failure is when this G
value exceeds the critical value, G.
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12

Eq.1
Griffith
crack model

EG
a

Eq.2

Fracture
mechanics
May-Aug 2007

Stress intensity factor

In mode I failure and plane-strain condition, the relationship
between G and K can be shown by an expression as follows;
IC

IC

K IC (1 )

G
IC

Eq.3

Where K is the critical stress intensity

IC
factor for mode I failure.

Crack deformation mode.

Mode I: tension,
opening

Mode II: In plane shear,

sliding
Fracture
modes

Mode III: Out of plane

shear, tearing

Note: K value can be evaluated using standard experimental

approaches, which is much more readily than values of G.
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Stress intensity factor

Stress intensity factor KIC can be
described as fracture toughness
of materials (material resistance
to crack propagation) under
conditions of

1) brittle fracture
2) in the presence of a sharp
3) crack under critical tensile
loading
K IC app a c

Eq.4

Where
KIC is the critical stress intensity factor for
plane strain condition in mode I failure.
ac is the critical crack length in an infinite plate
is the applied stress

app

Crack deformation mode

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is a parameter dependent on specimen and

crack geometry
LEFM Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
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K values of various crack geometries

(a)

Through thickness crack

2a

app

Edge crack
(d)

K 1.12

app

(b)

Semi circular crack

(e)

K 0.6 app a

2a

Corner crack

K 0.8 app

(c)

2a

Semi elliptical crack

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K 0.8 app a

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Determination of fracture toughness

Fracture toughness of material can be determined
according to LEFM analysis

1) K

IC

fracture toughness

works well for very high strength materials.

exhibiting brittle fracture

2) Crack tip opening displacement CTOD

Used for lower strength materials (o < 1400 MPa),

exhibiting small amount of plastic deformation

before failure.

for lower
3)Used
J-integral
(JIC)strength materials, exhibiting small
amount of plastic deformation before failure.

4) R-curve
The resistance to fracture of a material during
slow
and stable crack propagation.
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KIC fracture toughness

KIC fracture toughness of material is obtained by determining

the ability of material to withstand the load in the presence of

a sharp crack before failure.
Fracture toughness is required in
the system of high strength and
light weight, i.e., high strength

steels, titanium and aluminium

alloys.
EX:
Crack propagation direction

Fracture toughness How long the

existing crack will grow until the

specimen fails
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Flaw geometry and design of

cylindrical pressure vessel
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Stress distribution in the presence

of a crack
The stress distribution in a thin plate for an elastic solid in terms of
12
the coordinates (fig) is given by
a

2r

cos
1

sin

3
sin
2

2
2r 1 2
2

1 sin
3
y 2 sin
sin
cos
cos cos

Eq.5

Where is 1gross
nominal stress = P/wt
2
for a > r >

For an orientation directly ahead of the

Model for equations for stresses
at a point near a crack

2r

crack tip ( = 0)
x y

12

, xy 0

Eq.6

2r
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Stress distribution in the presence

of a crack
"nom

High local stress

intensity

stress concentration
leading to brittle failure
z

( 111
[bl

plane stress

r
---I---rT;

i..-B~
-z~~J
~
~\~~z

[el

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Figure 7-15 ((J)

Elastic Udomphol
stresses beneath a notch in a Lhin plate (planes stress); (b)May-Aug
elastic
Tapany
stresses beneath a notch in plane strain: (c) distribution of 0: with z at .l: ~ 0 (plane strain): (d)
distribution of "tresses during local yielding (plane strain).

2007

Determination of K fracture toughness

IC
K

IC

the critical stress intensity in mode I fracture

Need to make sure that the specimen is tested under mode I

fracture and in a plane strain condition brittle condition.

1) Validation of K fracture toughness values

IC
2) Specimen preparation
3) Testing procedure
4) Calculation of K value
IC

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Validation of K value
IC
stress distribution
under the notch

plane
strain condition,
KIC

toughness of materials
of different test specimen
dimensions

B,W o a ,o a 2.5

IC

Eq.7

B
W
ao
W-ao

o
P/(Jtn-slrOIfl

Hllckness

Compact
Compact ten
tension
specimen

fr(JCllJff!

(j

Effect of specimen thickness on

stress and mode of fracture
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Bend
specimen
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Different specimen
specim
dimensions

Specimen preparation

Test piece
thi

10 em ck

Fatigue pre-cracking
high stress
distribution ahead of the crack tip.

Notch

Example of fracture
toughness specimen

Fatigue
precrack

Directions of crack propagation

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Stress distribution
ahead of fatigue precrack
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Crack tip
Distance
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Test procedure for KIC

0=8
w=28

Compact tension specimen

fracture toughness
p
p

pre-cracked specimen

,
~8/~~----~--------~

0=8
W=28
Bend specimen
5 =88

Notche
d round
speame
t:

XI=

o~1

2[1
72(
~)127
]

Three-point
bend
arrangement for
fracture
toughness test

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Load-clip gauge displacement curves

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Calculation of K fracture toughness

IC
Fracture toughness K
Q
P
S
PS f a
1.5
KQ
B

Eq.8
W
f(
BWspecimen
For bend
W
12
32
5 a/
2
7 2

a
a
a
a
a

.
.
.

.
W

ao
ofa
o a
o
o a
f
21 8 37.6
37 6
38.7
38 7
2.9

4.6
2 9
46 21.8

)
a
.
W
W
W
W
W

12

32

52

7 2

oo

Eq.10

If the KQ value
obtained from Eq.8 is
verified according to

.15'1 = 62

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Eq.9
W

8,
Compliance function
depending
el.ongaticlll. ('from c~ip gage)
on the crack length

i 8
a 1 a1 a9 a

i 2

9 2

ao

9 2

B
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Eq 7, KIC.
May-Aug 2007

Typical values of K
IC

Table 11..1 Typical values of K Ie

Yield
strength.

Fracture
toughness
K1c:
}\'i ate

~lPa

rial
}..fPa m.'

:!.

1~70

43-lO {eel

46
Maraging steel

1730

90
Ti-6Al-4Y

900

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2024- T3 AI allov

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385

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Fracture toughness and design

If the K value of material is known and the presence of
IC
a crack is allowed, we can then monitor the crack propagation
during service prior to failure. How long we can use the
component before it fails.
Crack in the component (in service) can be detected by
using Non Destructive Testing (NDT), i.e., ultrasonic, dyepenetrant, X-ray, Eddy current, ferromagnetic inspection.
K IC app a c

Eq.11

From equation and figure, we can design

the allowable stress at the presence of
a given crack length a without failure.

Relation between fracture

toughness and allowable stress
and crack size
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EX: Crack observed

in pressure vessel
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Example: The stress intensity for a partial-through thickness flaw

is given by K a sec a / 2t where a is the depth of flaw
penetration through a wall thickness t. If the flaw is 5 mm deep in
a wall 12 mm thick, determine whether the wall will support a
stress of 172 MPa if it is made from 7075-T6 aluminium alloy.
1/2,
of
7075-T6
Al
alloy
=
24
MPa.m
KIC
a = 5 x 10-3 m
t = 12 x 10-3 m

sec a

2t
K IC

sec 0.6545 1
1.260
3
5
10

sec
cos 0.6545
212 10 3 24

a sec a /
2t

24

5 10 3

171 MPa
0.01979

1.260

But the applied stress is 172 MPa.m1/2. The flaw will therefore
propagate as a brittle fracture.
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Example:

KIC
o

1.21 a2
KI
Q
2

II

2-0.212(/o)2

II

._j

~ 2.
c

I->

uluO = 0
~/UO=

360

0.4

900

0_<1

ultrO = 0.8
06
=:

u1tTO = 10

...h.ere 0 = t/J2- 212.

= A compte flow

(;)l

ac

shope parameter

2a=2c

t/J
'l

Note:
ac (15.5 mm) > wall thickness (12 mm),

Q
2

c
K IQ
(2.35)
2(57)1.21
(360)
a 1.21
15.5mm
2

leak before failure

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a/2c

ac

uluO =

luO= 04
ul{To = 06
uluO= 0_8
uluO = 10

\'itleu~ 0 = 4>2

a K IQ
c

1.21

(57)2 (1.0)
1.21 (360)

6.6 mm

(:oY

212 parameter
shape

'Ii = A

In this case the vessel would fracture

when the crack had propagated
about
half-way through the wall thickness

camptex

How

/I

/I

~-j
~ 2c

1-

(f

_11.

Ef2
'it

v~ _

t.
0
121 0(1/~1(J"2

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- Microstructure, inclusions, impurities

- Composition
- Heat treatment
- Thermo-mechanical processing

toughness K

80

2000

60

1500

40

1000

20

500
Fracture toughness, K
0.2% Yield stress

0
-300

-200

-100

Test conditions
-Temperature
- Strain rate
- Specimen thickness

0.2% Yield stress, MPa

Metallurgical factors

Fracture toughness, MPa.m1/2

Variables affecting fracture

100

200

300

400

0
500

Temperature, oC

Temp
Strain rate

KIC

Specimen
thickness
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Plasticity correction
From r r , >
p
y
o

plastic zone size

tip

crack

Plane stress

rp

1 K2
rp

2
o

Eq.12

Plane strain
Modified stress
distribution
elastic -I-

1 K2
rp

plastic

Von Mise

Tresca

2
o

Eq.13

Plastic zone ahead of the crack tip

r-

Estimation of plastic zone size

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Dugdales model of
plastic zone
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Crack tip opening displacement

(CTOD)
For materials that exhibit certain
extent of plasticity before failure.
The crack-tip displacement concept
considers that the material ahead of the
crack contains a series of miniature
tensile specimen having a gauge
length l and a width w.

Model of crack-tip displacement

Under stable crack growth

Under unstable crack growth

Failure of specimen near the crack

tip does not immediately causes
failure in the adjacent one. need
to increase the load to further
propagate the crack. controllable
stable.

Specimen near the crack tip

fails first and immediately
causes the adjacent one crack
further. occur under
decreasing stress.

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Determination of CTOD
CTOD
displacement at the crack tip

Specimen test arrangement

2a
2B---+"*"--R

--_-'

CTOD
Crocli

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rp
E
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4
E

2ar

12

Eq.14

May-Aug 2007

J-integral
JBda

J-integral
lower-strength ductile
materials.
J-integral

Physical interpretation of
the J integral

different crack lengths

KIC

a series of identical specimens

a single specimen
Three point
bend specimen
J

Bb
A
B
b

Compact tension

2a

specimen

2A
Eq.15

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J 2 A (1 )

Eq.16

Eq

12

2a
2

2a

Eq.17

Bb (1 2

Specimen
dimensions

W-a
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J-integral
J-integral
a
J
Blunti
ng line
J

20

Ilow(

~8)

L.....c
I
)--_-o-;::=
~==~
The blunting line is drawn from the origin through the curve where
~~c~
Eq.18
J 2 (a)
ra ;c
k
Crack Initiation

bluntin
g

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ow t

flow

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R-curve
R curve

resistance to fracture of a material

R curve
crack propagation R
Irwin

resistance to
crack length a
G / a
R / a G R

Increasi
ng

G / a

load or
'0

'0

a:
Cl

R / a
G

r.!
l'J

CtI

c:;

&l

(1)
0

ex:

~I}

Eq.19
(a) R-curve for a ductile material,
(b) R-curve for a brittle material.

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Probabilistic aspects of fracture

mechanics
Failures of brittle materials
results

a high variability of

Ex:
140

N=IOI6

f-

120
f-

longest crack
weakest-link concept

r-

flaws
The initial crack size must be assumed to be
the largest crack size that can be expected
to be undetected by non destructive
inspection and the fracture toughness might
be assumed to be the lowest possible value

60
40
20

N::l012

,-

jlN
TOI

vi
/
\
./t:~~:O'
)

e 8str

vi) \ 1

oli'~e
Calculated frequency
distribution of
fracture stress as a function of number
of cracks N

to be expected in the material.

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./t:~

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Toughness of materials
The role of metallurgical variables on toughness of materials.

~ ~I" CBn'r;~CI

lpoc'n".n
.,.,

a~i)1).7<

1000

1200
Yield Sirength,
MPa

Strength
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Toughness
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Toughness of materials
To obtain material with high toughness

Small and rounded particles reduce pileup stress.

Should be widely spaced proper volume fraction.

Inclusionsare
should
avoid, or large widely spaced
inclusions
less be
damaging.
Fine grain size minimise dislocation pileup stress.

High crack deflection

more energy absorb during

fracture.

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References

Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition,

McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-100406-8.
Sanford, R.J., Principles of fracture mechanics, 2003,
Prentice Hall, New Jersey, ISBN 0-13-092992-1.

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