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Chapter 2
The Structure of
the Atom and the
Periodic Table
Denniston
Topping
Caret
5th Edition
2.1 Composition of the Atom

Atom - the basic structural unit of an
element
The smallest unit of an element that
retains the chemical properties of
that element
Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons

Atoms consist of three primary particles
electrons
protons
neutrons
Nucleus - small, dense, positively

charged region in the center of the atom
- protons - positively charged particles
- neutrons - uncharged particles
Characteristics of Atomic
Particles
Electrons are negatively charged particles
located outside of the nucleus of an atom
Protons and electrons have charges that are
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign
A neutral atom that has no electrical charge
has the same number of protons and
electrons
Electrons move very rapidly in a relatively
large volume of space while the nucleus is
small and dense
Symbolic Representation of
an Element
Charge of
particle
Mass
A
Z
Atomic
number
C
Symbol of
the atom
Atomic number (Z) - the number of

protons in the atom
Mass number (A) - sum of the number of
protons and neutrons
Atomic Calculations
number of protons + number of neutrons = mass number
number of neutrons = mass number - number of protons
number of protons = number of electrons IF positive and
negative charges cancel, the atom charge = 0
Atomic Composition Calculations

Calculate the number of protons, neutrons,
and electrons in each of the following:
11
5
55
26
Fe
Isotopes
Isotopes - atoms of the same element
having different masses
contain same number of protons
4
contain different numbers of neutrons
Isotopes of Hydrogen
Hydrogen
(Hydrogen - 1)
Deuterium
(Hydrogen - 2)
Tritium
(Hydrogen - 3)
Isotopic Calculations
Isotopes of the same element have identical chemical
properties
Some isotopes are radioactive
Find chlorine on the periodic table
What is the atomic number of chlorine?
17
What is the mass given?
35.45
This is not the mass number of an isotope
Atomic Mass
What is this number: 35.34?
The atomic mass - the weighted average of
the masses of all the isotopes that make up
chlorine
Chlorine consists of chlorine-35 and
chlorine-37 in a 3:1 ratio
Weighted average is an average corrected
by the relative amounts of each isotope
present in nature
Atomic Mass Calculation

Calculate the atomic mass of naturally
occurring chlorine if 75.77% of chlorine
atoms are chlorine-35 and 24.23% of
chlorine atoms are chlorine-37
Step 1: convert the percentage to a decimal
fraction:
0.7577 chlorine-35
0.2423 chlorine-37
Step 2: multiply the decimal fraction by the

mass of that isotope to obtain the isotope
contribution to the atomic mass:
For chlorine-35:
0.7577 x 35.00 amu = 26.52 amu
For chlorine-37
0.2423 x 37.00 amu = 8.965 amu
Step 3: sum these partial weights to get the
weighted average atomic mass of chlorine:
26.52 amu + 8.965 amu = 35.49 amu
Atomic Mass Determination

Nitrogen consists of two naturally occurring
isotopes
99.63% nitrogen-14 with a mass of 14.003 amu
0.37% nitrogen-15 with a mass of 15.000 amu
What is the atomic mass of nitrogen?
Ions and Charges

Ions - electrically charged particles that
result from a gain or loss of one or more
electrons by the parent atom
Cation - positively charged
results from the loss of electrons
23Na 23Na+ + 1e-
Anion - negatively charged

results from the gain of electrons
19F + 1e- 19F-
Calculating Subatomic Particles

in Ions
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons
are in the following ions?
39
19
32
16
24
12
2-
Mg
2.2 Development of Atomic

Theory
Daltons Atomic Theory - the first
experimentally based theory of atomic
structure of the atom

Theory
Postulates of Daltons Atomic Theory

1. All matter consists of tiny particles
called atoms
2. An atom cannot be created, divided,
destroyed, or converted to any other
type of atom
3. Atoms of a particular element have
identical properties

Theory
4. Atoms of different elements have

different properties
5. Atoms of different elements
combine in simple whole-number
ratios to produce compounds (stable
aggregates of atoms)
6. Chemical change involves joining,
separating, or rearranging atoms
Postulates 1, 4, 5, and 6 are still regarded
as true.

Theory
Subatomic Particles:
Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons
Electrons were the first subatomic
particles to be discovered using the
cathode ray tube.
Indicated that the

particles were
negatively charged.

Theory
Evidence for Protons and

Neutrons
Protons were the next particle to be discovered,

by Goldstein
Protons have the same size charge but opposite in sign
A proton is 1,837 times as heavy as an electron
Neutrons
Postulated to exist in 1920s but not demonstrated to
exist until 1932
Almost the same mass as the proton
Radioactive Emissions
The direction taken by the radioactive emissions

indicates the presence of 3 types of emissions

Theory
Evidence for the Nucleus
Initial assumed protons and neutrons were

uniformly distributed throughout the atom
Ernest Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment
lead to the understanding of the nucleus
Most alpha particles pass through the foil without
being deflected
Some particles were deflected, a few even directly
back to the source

Theory
Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment
Most of the atom is empty space

The majority of the mass is located in a
small, dense region
2.3 Light, Atomic Structure, and

5
the Bohr Atom
Rutherfords atom - tiny, dense, positively
charged nucleus of protons surrounded by
electrons
How do we describe the relationship of the
electrons to each other and the nucleus?
Use the measurement of particle energy rather
than position
2.3 Light, Atomic Structure,

and the Bohr Atom
Models of the Atom
(a) Thomson
(b) Rutherford

and the Bohr Atom
Light
Spectroscopy - absorption or emission of light
by atoms
Used to understand the electronic structure
To understand the electronic structure, we must

first understand light, Electromagnetic
Radiation
travels in waves from a source
speed of 3.0 x 108 m/s

and the Bohr Atom
Wavelengths
Light is propagated (moves) as a collection
of sine waves
Wavelength is the distance between identical
points on successive waves
Each wavelength travels at the same velocity,
but has its own characteristic energy
Electromagnetic Spectrum
high energy
short wavelength
low energy
long wavelength

and the Bohr Atom
The emission spectrum of hydrogen lead to

the modern understanding of the
electronic structure of the atom
The Bohr Atom
Electrons exist in fixed

energy levels
surrounding the nucleus
Promotion of
electron occurs as
it absorbs energy
Energy is released as
the electron travels
back to lower levels
Quantization of energy
Excited State
Relaxation

and the Bohr Atom
Electronic Transitions
Amount of energy absorbed in jumping
from one energy level to a higher energy
level is a precise quantity
Energy of that jump is the energy
difference between the orbits involved
Orbit - what Bohr called the fixed energy
levels
Ground state - the lowest possible energy
state

and the Bohr Atom
Bohr Theory
Atoms can absorb and emit energy via
promotion of electrons to higher energy
levels and relaxation to lower levels
Energy that is emitted upon relaxation is
observed as a single wavelength of light
Spectral lines are a result of electron
transitions between allowed levels in the
atoms

and the Bohr Atom
Bohr Theory
Allowed levels are quantized energy levels,
orbits
Electrons are found only in these energy levels
Highest-energy orbits are farthest from the
nucleus
Atoms
Absorb energy by excitation of electrons to higher
energy levels
Release energy by relaxation of electrons to lower
energy levels
Energy differences may be calculated from the

wavelength of light emitted

and the Bohr Atom
Modern Atomic Theory

Bohrs model of the atom when applied to
atoms with more than one electron failed to
explain their line spectra
One major change from Bohrs model is that
electrons do not move in orbits
Atomic orbitals - regions in space with a
high probability of finding an electron
Electrons move rapidly within the orbital
giving a high electron density
2.4 The Periodic Law and the

Periodic Table
Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer - two
scientists working independently developed
the precursor to our modern periodic table
They noticed that as you list elements in
order of atomic mass, there is a distinct
regular variation of their properties
Periodic law - the physical and chemical
properties of the elements are periodic
functions of their atomic numbers
2.4 The Periodic Law

and the Periodic Table
Classification of the Elements

Important Biological Elements

Parts of the Periodic Table

Period - a horizontal row of elements in
the periodic table. They contain 2, 8, 8,
18, 18, and 32 elements
Group - also called families, and are
columns of elements in the periodic table.
Elements in a particular group or family
share many similarities, as in a human
family.

Families of the Periodic Table

Representative elements - Group A
elements
Transition elements - Group B
elements
Alkali metals - Group IA
Alkaline earth metals - group IIA
Halogens - group VIIA
Noble gases - group VIIIA

Category Classification of
Elements
Metals - elements that tend to lose
electrons during chemical change,
forming positive ions
Nonmetals - a substance whose atoms
tend to gain electrons during chemical
change, forming negative ions
Metalloids - have properties intermediate
between metals and nonmetals

Classification of Elements
Metals:
Metals
A substance whose atoms tend to lose

electrons during chemical change
Elements found primarily in the left 2/3 of
the periodic table
Properties:
High thermal and electrical conductivities

High malleability and ductility
Metallic luster
Solid at room temperature

Nonmetals
Nonmetals:
A substance whose atoms may gain
electrons, forming negative ions
Elements found in the right 1/3 of the
periodic table
Properties:
Brittle
Powdery solids or gases
Opposite of metal properties

Metalloids
Metalloids:
Elements that form a narrow diagonal band
in the periodic table between metals and
nonmetals
Properties are somewhat between those

of metals and nonmetals
Also called semimetals

Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

Atomic Number:
The number of protons in the nucleus of
an atom of an element
Nuclear charge or positive charge from
the nucleus
Most periodic tables give the element

symbol, atomic number, and atomic
mass

Element Information in the

Periodic Table
20
Ca
Calcium
40.08
atomic number
symbol
name
atomic mass

Using the Periodic Table
Identify the group and period to

which each of the following belongs:
a. P
b. Cr
c. Element 30
How many elements are found in

period 6?
How many elements are in group
VA?
2.5 Electron Arrangement and the

Periodic Table
The electron arrangement is the primary
factor in understanding how atoms join
together to form compounds
Electron configuration - describes the
arrangement of electrons in atoms
Valence electrons - outermost electrons
The electrons involved in chemical bonding
2.5 Electron Arrangement

Valence Electrons
The number of valence electrons is the
group number for the representative
elements
The period number gives the energy
level (n) of the valence shell for all
elements

Valence Electrons and Energy

Level
How many valence electrons does Fluorine
have?
7 valence electrons
What is the energy level of these electrons?

Energy level is n = 2

Electron Arrangement by
Energy Level

Valence Electrons - Detail

What is the total number of electrons in
fluorine?
Atomic number = 9
9 protons and 9 electrons
7 electrons in the valence shell, (n = 2 energy level),
so where are the other two electrons?
In n = 1 energy level
Level n = 1 holds only two electrons

Determining Electron Arrangement

List the total number of electrons, total number of
valence electrons, and energy level of the valence
electrons for silicon.
1. Find silicon in the periodic table
Group IVA
Period 3
Atomic number = 14
2. Atomic number = number of electrons in

an atom
Silicon has 14 electrons

Determining Electron Arrangement #2

List the total number of electrons, total number of
valence electrons, and energy level of the valence
electrons for silicon.
3. As silicon is in Group IV, only 4 of its 14

electrons are valence electrons
Group IVA = number of valence electrons
4. Energy levels:
n = 1 holds 2 electrons
n = 2 holds 8 electrons (total of 10)
n = 3 holds remaining 4 electrons (total = 14)

Determining Electron Arrangement

Practice
List the total number of electrons, total
number of valence electrons, and energy
level of the valence electrons for:
Na
Mg
S
Cl
Ar

The Quantum Mechanical Atom

Bohrs model of the hydrogen atom
didnt clearly explain the electron
structure of other atoms
Electrons in very specific locations,
principal energy levels
Wave properties of electrons conflict with
specific location
Schredinger developed equations that

took into account the particle nature and
the wave nature of the electrons

Schredingers equations
Equations that determine the probability
of finding an electron in specific region
in space, quantum mechanics
Principle energy levels (n = 1, 2, 3)
Each energy level has one or more
sublevels or subshells (s, p, d, f)
Each sublevel contains one or more
atomic orbitals

Energy Levels and Subshells

PRINCIPAL ENERGY LEVELS
n = 1, 2, 3,
The larger the value of n, the higher the energy
level and the farther away from the nucleus the
electrons are
The number of sublevels in a principal energy
level is equal to n
in n = 1, there is one sublevel
in n = 2, there are two sublevels

Principal Energy Levels

The electron capacity of a principal
energy level (or total electrons it can hold) is
2(n)2
n = 1 can hold 2(1)2 = 2 electrons
n = 2 can hold 2(2)2 = 8 electrons
How many electrons can be in the n = 3

level?
2(3)2 = 18
Compare the formula with periodic table..
n = 1, 2(1)2 = 2
n = 2, 2(2)2 = 8
n = 3, 2(3)2 = 18
n = 4, 2(4)2 = 32

Sublevels
Sublevel: a set of energy-equal orbitals
within a principal energy level
Subshells increase in energy:
s<p<d<f
Electrons in 3d subshell have more energy
than electrons in the 3p subshell
Specify both the principal energy level and a
subshell when describing the location of an
electron

Sublevels in Each Energy Level

Principle energy
level (n)
Possible
subshells
1s
2s, 2p
3s, 3p, 3d
4s, 4p, 4d, 4f

Orbitals
Orbital - a specific region of a sublevel
containing a maximum of two electrons
Orbitals are named by their sublevel and
principal energy level
1s, 2s, 3s, 2p, etc.
Each type of orbital has a characteristic

shape
s is spherically symmetrical
p has a shape much like a dumbbell

Orbital Shapes
s is spherically
symmetrical
Each p has a shape much like a dumbbell,

differing in the direction extending into space

Subshell
Number of
orbitals
How many electrons can be in the

4d subshell?
10
Each orbital within a

sublevel contains a
maximum of 2
electrons
Energy increases as n,
shell number
increases, but ALSO
increases as you move
from s to p to d to f
sublevels
Shell 4
4f
Increasing Energy

Quantum Mechanical Model
4d
Sublevel
4p

Orbital
4s
Electron

Electron Spin
Electron configuration - the
arrangement of electrons in atomic
orbitals
Aufbau principle - or building up
principle helps determine the electron
configuration
Electrons fill the lowest-energy orbital that
is available first
Remember s<p<d<f in energy
When the orbital contains two electrons,
the electrons are said to be paired

Electron Filling Order

Rules for Writing Electron

Configurations
Obtain the total number of electrons in the atom
from the atomic number
Electrons in atoms occupy the lowest energy
orbitals that are available 1s first
Each principal energy level, n contains only n
sublevels
Each sublevel is composed of orbitals
No more than 2 electrons in any orbital
Maximum number of electrons in any principal
energy level is 2(n)2

Electron Distribution
This table lists the number of electrons in each
shell for the first 20 elements
Note that 3rd shell stops filling at 8 electrons even though
it could hold more

Orbital Energy-level Diagram

Writing Electron Configurations

H
Hydrogen has
only 1 electron
It is in the
lowest energy
level & lowest
orbital
Indicate number
of electrons
with a
superscript
1s1
Li
Lithium has 3
electrons
First two have
configuration
of Helium 1s2
3rd is in the
orbital of
lowest energy
in n=2
1s2 2s1

Electron Configuration Examples

Give the complete electron configuration
of each element
Be
N
Na
Cl
Ag

The Shell Model and Chemical

Properties
As we explore the model placing electrons

in shells, we will see that the pattern which
emerges from this placement correlates well
with a pattern for various chemical
properties
We will see that all elements in a group have
the same number of electrons in their
outermost (or valence) shell

Groups Have Similar Chemical

Properties and Appearances
Examples of different elements that
have similar properties and are all in
group VA
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Arsenic
Antimony
Bismuth

Shorthand Electron
Configurations
Uses noble gas symbols to represent the
inner shell and the outer shell or valance
shell is written after
Aluminum- full electron configuration is:
1s22s22p63s23p1
What noble gas configuration is this?
Neon
Configuration is written: [Ne]3s23p1

Remember:
How many subshells are in each
principle energy level?
There are n subshells in the n principle
energy level.
How many orbitals are in each
subshell?
s has 1, p has 3, d has 5, and f has 7
How many electrons fit in each orbital?
2

Shorthand Electron
Configuration Examples
N
S
Ti
Sn

According to the Type of
Subshells Being Filled
Use this breakdown of the Periodic Table and you can

write the configuration of any element.

by Group
Representative element: An element in which the
distinguishing electron is found in an s or p
subshell
Distinguishing electron: The last or highestenergy electron found in an element
Transition element: An element in which the
distinguishing electron is found in a d subshell
Inner-transition element: An element in which
the distinguishing electron is found in a f
subshell
2.6 The Octet Rule

The noble gases are extremely stable
Called inert as they dont readily bond to other
elements
The stability is due to a full complement of

valence electrons in the outermost s and p
sublevels:
2 electrons in the 1s of Helium
the s and p subshells are full in the outermost shell
of the other noble gases (eight electrons)
2.6 The Octet Rule
Octet of Electrons
Elements in families other than the noble
gases are more reactive
Strive to achieve a more stable electron
configuration
Change the number of electrons in the atom to
result in full s and p sublevels
Stable electron configuration is called the

noble gas configuration
2.6 The Octet Rule
The Octet Rule

Octet rule - elements usually react in such a way
as to attain the electron configuration of the noble
gas closest to them in the periodic table
Elements on the right side of the table move right to the
next noble gas
Elements on the left side move backwards to the
noble gas of the previous row
Atoms will gain, lose or share electrons in

chemical reactions to attain this more stable energy
state
2.6 The Octet Rule
Ion Formation and the Octet Rule

Metallic elements tend to form positively
charged ions called cations
Metals tend to lose all their valence
electrons to obtain a configuration of the
noble gas
Na
Na+ + e-
Sodium atom
11e-, 1 valence e[Ne]3s1
Sodium ion
10e[Ne]
2.6 The Octet Rule
Ion Formation and the Octet Rule

All atoms of a group lose the same number of
electrons
Resulting ion has the same number of electrons as
the nearest (previous) noble gas atom
Al
Al3+ + 3e-
Aluminum atom
13e-, 3 valence e[Ne]3s23p1
Aluminum ion
10e[Ne]
2.6 The Octet Rule
Isoelectronic
Isoelectronic - atoms of different elements having
the same electron configuration (same number of
electrons)
Nonmetallic elements, located on the right side of

the periodic table, tend to form negatively charged
ions called anions
Nonmetals tend to gain electrons so they become
isoelectronic with its nearest noble gas neighbor
located in the same period to the right
O + 2e-
O2-
Oxygen atom
8e-, 6 valence e[He]2s22p4
Oxide ion
10e[He]2s22p6 or [Ne]
2.6 The Octet Rule
Using the Octet Rule

The octet rule is very helpful in predicting
the charges of ions in the representative
elements
Transition metals still tend to lose electrons
to become cations but predicting the charge
is not as easy
Transition metals often form more than one
stable ion
Iron forming Fe2+ and Fe3+ is a common example
2.6 The Octet Rule
Examples Using the Octet Rule

Give the charge of the
most probable ion
resulting from these
elements
Ca
Sr
S
P
Which of the
following pairs of
atoms and ions are
isoelectronic?
Cl-, Ar
Na+, Ne
Mg2+, Na+
O2-, F-
2.7 Trends in the Periodic Table

Many atomic properties correlate with
electronic structure and so also with their
position in the periodic table
atomic size
ion size
ionization energy
electron affinity
2.7 Trends in the Periodic

Table
Atomic Size
The size of an element increases, moving

down from top to bottom of a group
The valence shell is higher in energy and
farther from the nucleus traveling down the
group
The size of an element decreases from left

to right across a period
The increase in magnitude of positive charge in
nucleus pulls the electrons closer to the nucleus

Table
Variation in Size of Atoms

Table
Cation Size
Cations are smaller than their parent atom
More protons than electrons creates an increased
nuclear charge
Extra protons pull the remaining electrons closer
to the nucleus
Ions with multiple positive charges are even
smaller than the corresponding monopositive
ions
Which would be smaller, Fe2+ or Fe3+?
Fe3+
When a cation is formed isoelectronic with a

noble gas the valence shell is lost, decreasing the
diameter of the ion relative to the parent atom

Table
Anion Size
Anions are larger than their parent
atom.
Anions have more electrons than protons
Excess negative charge reduces the pull
of the nucleus on each individual electron
Ions with multiple negative charges are
even larger than the corresponding
monopositive ions

Table
Relative Size of Select Ions and

Their Parent Atoms

Table
Ionization Energy
Ionization energy - The energy required to

remove an electron from an isolated atom
The magnitude of ionization energy
correlates with the strength of the attractive
force between the nucleus and the
outermost electron
The lower the ionization energy, the easier
it is to form a cation
ionization energy + Na Na+ + e-

Table
Ionization Energy of Select Elements
Ionization decreases down a family as the

outermost electrons are farther from the nucleus
Ionization increases across a period because the
outermost electrons are more tightly held
Why would the noble gases be so unreactive?

Table
Electron Affinity
Electron affinity - The energy released
when a single electron is added to an
isolated atom
Electron affinity gives information about
the ease of anion formation
Large electron affinity indicates an atom
becomes more stable as it forms an anion
Br + e Br + energy

Table
Periodic Trends in Electron

Affinity
Electron affinity
generally
decreases down a
group
Electron affinity
generally increases
across a period

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2.1 Composition of the Atom

2.1 Composition of the Atom

Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons

Nucleus - small, dense, positively

2.1 Composition of the Atom

2.1 Composition of the Atom

Atomic number (Z) - the number of

2.1 Composition of the Atom

2.1 Composition of the Atom

2.1 Composition of the Atom

Atomic Composition Calculations

2.1 Composition of the Atom

2.1 Composition of the Atom

2.1 Composition of the Atom

2.1 Composition of the Atom

Atomic Mass Calculation

2.1 Composition of the Atom

Step 2: multiply the decimal fraction by the

2.1 Composition of the Atom

Atomic Mass Determination

What is the atomic mass of nitrogen?

2.1 Composition of the Atom

Ions and Charges

Anion - negatively charged

2.1 Composition of the Atom

Calculating Subatomic Particles

2.2 Development of Atomic

2.2 Development of Atomic

Postulates of Daltons Atomic Theory

2.2 Development of Atomic

4. Atoms of different elements have

2.2 Development of Atomic

Indicated that the

2.2 Development of Atomic

Evidence for Protons and

Protons were the next particle to be discovered,

The direction taken by the radioactive emissions

2.2 Development of Atomic

Evidence for the Nucleus

Initial assumed protons and neutrons were

2.2 Development of Atomic

Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment

Most of the atom is empty space

2.3 Light, Atomic Structure, and

2.3 Light, Atomic Structure,

2.3 Light, Atomic Structure,

To understand the electronic structure, we must

2.3 Light, Atomic Structure,

2.3 Light, Atomic Structure,

The emission spectrum of hydrogen lead to

The Bohr Atom

Electrons exist in fixed

2.3 Light, Atomic Structure,

2.3 Light, Atomic Structure,

2.3 Light, Atomic Structure,

Energy differences may be calculated from the

2.3 Light, Atomic Structure,

Modern Atomic Theory

2.4 The Periodic Law and the

2.4 The Periodic Law

2.4 The Periodic Law

2.4 The Periodic Law