Chapter 2

Ancient Mesopotamian, Egypt and Near

Eastern Empires

Mesopotamian Civilization

Sumerian City-States (c. 3500-2300 BCE)

GreeksspokeofMesopotamiawhichmeansland between the rivers
TigrisandEuphrates(modernIraqandeasternSyria).
Civilizationemergedduetothe fertile land and rivers.Thatiswhy
Mesopotamiancivilizationisalsocalledthe Fertile Crescent
Mesopotamiawastheplaceofoneofthe earliest centers of urban civilization
asearlyas4000BCE
Sumeriansfirstdevelopedcivilization
Theoriginobscure(perhapsfromnorthernIndia)
Settledin3500BCE
Emergenceofthefirstearliest12 independent walled city-states (c.2900-2300
BCE)
Sumeriancity-stateswerenotunited
Inventedsymbol writing (cuneiform) inabout3200BCE
Constructed cities,Eridu,Erech,Adab,Isin,Kish,Larsa,Nippur,Lagash,Ur,
Uruk.Sumeriansused bricks fortheconstructionofthebuildings.
Constantwarsbetweenthecity-statesandforeigninvasionsresultedintheir
collapse
Struggleandconflictsoverthenaturalresourcessuchaslandandwaterandthe
controloftrade
GeographicallyMesopotamiawasopen to foreign invasions unlikeEgypt

The city of Ur (inmodern-dayIraq)wasoneoftheoldestandmostimportantcitiesofMesopotamia

inthedaysoftheancientSumeriansandBabylonians.TheGreatStelaofUrisperhapsthemost
significantmonumenteverfoundinBabylonia.Thestelacontainsapictorialrecordofthebuildingof
theZigguratinabout2300BC.

The Akkadian Empire (c. 2300-2100 BCE)

AkkadiansconqueredSumeriancity-statesinabout2300BCE
TheAkkadians,aSemitic-speakingpeople
Gotthenameafterthe city Akkad,whichwassituatedinthenorth
King Sargon I foundeddynastyofAkkadandwon24battles
Sargonbuildtheworldsfirstempireandbecamethefirstkingintheworld
history
TheAkkadianempireextendedfrom the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean.
Accordingtoalegend,kingSargonwashedhisswordinthePersianGulf.
Semiticlanguages
TheAkkadianlanguagereplacedSumeria
TheAkkadiansborrowedmuchfromSumerians
TheyspreadSumerianachievementsbeyondMesopotamia
TheGutiansendedAkkadianruleinabout2100BCE

Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100-2000 BCE)

AfterdisintegrationofAkkadianempirewarringcity-statesemerged
SeveralSumerian cities revived,especiallyUr
OftenthisperiodisalsocalledSumerian Renaissance
InfluxofElamitesdestroyedthecityofUrinabout2000BC.
PeriodofcivilwarandfinallyinvasionbytheAmorites
100 thousand clay tablets werediscoveredfromthisperiod

TheFirst Dynasty of Babylon (c. 1800-1600 BCE)

Amorites,asemitic-speaking,headedbyHammurabi (reign.1792-1750B.C.)
KingofJustice
KingofAkkadandSumer
Lawgiver

HammurabiconqueredalmostwholeofMesopotamiaandAssyria.Heextended
civilizationtothenorth
Conquestsduetowell-disciplined army andhisphilosophyofdivideandrule.
HeunifiedthewholeMesopotamiaasduringtheSumerianperiod
Afterhimkingsweak,whichresultedininvasions by the Hittites inaround
1600BCE.
HavingsackedBabylontheHittitesreturnedtotheircountry.
NewinvaderstheKassitesfromIranianMountainsandruledforthenextthree
centuries.
Howeverthiswasconsideredasthedarkageandverylittleisknownaboutthis
period.

Religion: The Basis of Mesopotamian Civilization

A spiritual worldview.Religionframeofreferencetounderstandbothsociety
andnature.
ReligionthecenterofMesopotamianreligious,economic,politicalandsocial
wayoflife
Godswereseenaspartofnature[polytheismandanimism];godsofsky,earth,
sea,underworld
3000deities
Godscontrolledtheuniverseandtheworldlyrealmoflife
Godslivingrealitieswhoaffectedallaspectsoflife.Toliveistoexecutethewill
ofgods
Deities An [sky], Enlil [wind], Enki [earth], Marduk [god of the city].
Ziggurat;flourishingoftemplebuildingbyvolunteers.
Zigguratwasdedicatedtospecificgodorgoddesseswhowasthepatronofthe
city
Role of the temple and priest:religious,economicandculturalcenter
Epic of Gilgamesh datesbackto3000BCE.
Dealswithgreatflood,ideaofmortalityandsecularwayoflife.
Similartothebiblicalstoriesabouttheflood

Gilgamesh,herooftheMesopotamianEpic of Gilgamesh,soughtthesecretsofimmortalityfrom
Utnapishtim,who,likethebiblicalNoah,builtashipandescapedhumankind'sdestructionbyflood.
ThroughouthislifeGilgameshfacedmanytests,oftenagainstanimals,asdepictedinthis8thcenturyAssyrianrelief(Louvre,Paris).The Epic of Gilgamesh,composedabout2000BCandfound
inscribedon12tabletsatNineveh,istheearliestknownepic.(Giraudon/ArtResource)

Ziggurat at Ur circa 2100 B.C.

The construction of ziggurats in Mesopotamia
probably originated from an earlier tradition of
raising temples on terraces so that they would be
higher than any of the surrounding buildings

Government and Law

Primitive democracy ruleofthecouncilofelderswhoappointedthe
temporarykingonlyduringthewar.
Howeverkingslaterbecamehereditary and permanent
Kingshipbestowedbythegods;thecentralinstitution.Theocratic political
system
Kingdidnotconsiderhimselfasgodbutasgreatmenselectedbygodsto
representthemonearth.Itmeansthatgodsruledthroughkings.
Thekingaseveryonehadtoimplementandobeydivinelaws.
Social stratification of the society:kings,priests,specialists,freefarmersand
slaves
The Code of Hammurabi, a collection of 282 laws. Westernconceptoflawand
justiceSimilartothebiblicalcommandments
Fragmentsofthiscodesurvived
Basicphilosophyoflawwasan eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth.
Thecoderestedontheauthorityofgodsanditprescribeddifferentkindsof
laws.Toviolatethemmeanttoviolatethedivineorder.
Penaltiesvariedonthesocialstatus.(nobles,commonersandslaves)so
peoplewerenotequalbeforethelaw.
Slavesdidnthaveanyrights
Thecodeprovided
consumerprotectionlaws
commerciallaws
legallawsforthesociety
lawsdealingwithmoralityifasonhasstruckhisfather,hishandshall
becutoff.

ThelawcodeofHammurabi,kingofBabyloniafrom1792to1750BC,isrecordedonthisstele,
whichalsobearsareliefportraitofthekingstandingbeforeShamash,thegodofjustice.Thestele
wasfoundinSusa,Iran,in1901.(ErichLessing/ArtResource,NY)

Writing, Mathematics and Astronomy

First schools of scribes inhistoryinaround2500BCE
Writing for record keeping andteachingpurposes
Developedfirst textbooks and dictionaries
Clay tables informoftext-books
Studentsemployedaftercompletionoftheschoolasarchivists,secretariesand
accountants
Cuneiform (wedged shaped), about3000BCE
Mathematics

devisedmultiplicationanddivisiontables
devisedcubesandcuberoots
developeddigitandplacevalueofnumbers
determinedtheareaofright-angletrianglesandrectangles
dividedcircleinto360degrees
geometryusedtomeasurefieldsanderectbuildings

Astronomy
observationsofthestarsandplanets
devisedthefirstlunarcalendarbasedonthecyclesofthemoon12months
mythicalinterpretationofuniverse

Others
arch,dome,brick,wheel,chariots,money

Pictogramsevolvedintothecuneiformsystemofwriting,inwhichasignreferstothenameofan
object.ThisSumeriantablethasbeenidentifiedasanumericallist.(TheBettmannArchive)

Cuneiform
Clay
Tablet
3200 B.C.

Egyptian Civilization

Introduction
The Fertile Valley of the Nile

Nile originates inBurundiandflowsthroughUganda,Sudan,Egyptand

emptiesintheMediterraneansea.It is around 6650 km long.

HerodotuscalledEgyptthegiftofNile

Control of river includedengineeringandadministrativeskills

Fertility, crops, transportation and communication

Geographical position providedEgyptwithprotection

Egyptianhistory

Manetho,anEgyptianpriestprovidedbasicframeforthestudyof
Egyptianhistory

Morethan3000 thousand years of history

31royaldynasties

6majorhistoricalperiods

Menes or Narmer oftencalledunifieroftheUpperandLowerEgypt

unifiedEgyptin3100BCEandestablishedthefirstdynasty

LastPtolemaic dynasty ended in 31 BCE

The Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100-2700 BCE) (Dynasties I-II)

Theearliestphasesawthe formation of the Egyptian state
EgyptwasdividedintoUpper Egypt and Lower Egypt
BeforeunificationsettlementsalongNiletookplace.SosettlementandNile
facilitatedfoundationofthestate
Unificationwasimportant.Itwasgeographical and political unification.
Eventheroyal double crown representedunification.
Importantdevelopmentsthatledtothefoundationofthestate

Kingship

cultural regionalism disappeared

social structure andhegemonyofEgyptianculture/self-identification

administrationatMemphis,whichwasstrategicallylocatedforcontrolof
bothUpperandLowerEgypt

establishmentoftrade and organized economy

introductionofhieroglyphic writing

The Old Kingdom (2700-2200 BCE) (Dynasties III-VI)

TheOldKingdomlastedforabout500 hundred years. Thisperiod
symbolizespeace, stability, no standing army and only internal interest
BytheIIIdynastyEgyptiankingsachievedfullsupremacyandruledfrom
theircapital at Memphis
Theroyalpowerwasabsolute.Rulethroughroyalfamilyandnobility
Thewordpharaohliterallymeansgreat house
ThebestsymboloftheOldKingdomweregreat pyramids
Duringthe4thdynastymainpyramidswerebuilt
ThefirstpyramidwasZoser pyramid builtbyarchitectImhotephinaround
2600BCE
GizaComplexandthelargestKhufu pyramid:

481feethigh

756feetlongoneachside

Builtof2.3millionstoneblock

Eachblock2.5tones

100thousandpeoplespent20yearsbuildingit
Pyramids symbolize
politicalandmilitaryauthority
economicstrength
religiousmotives

Theearliestpyramidalstructureoftheancientworld,theStepPyramid(c.2630BC)ofKingZoserat
Saqqara,Egypt,consistsofsixterracesofrecedingsizeswithamastaba(tomb)atitsnucleus.
(Corbis/MITCollection)

AcamelcaravanpassesthepyramidsofKhufu(Cheops),Khafre,andMenkaure
atGiza,Egypt,ontheeasternedgeoftheSahara.(Corbis/JonathanBlair)

TheGreatSphinxisamongtheworld'sbestknownandmostadmiredancienttreasures.Its
extraordinarymonumentalityatteststoadvancedengineeringandconstructionmethodswhich
continuetobafflecontemporaryscientists.Thebody(ofarecumbentlion)andthehead(ofadivine
king)oftheGreatSphinxarecarvedfromlivingrock.Theoutstretchedpawsareaddedmasonry.The
wholefigurewasoriginallycoveredwithpaintedplaster,tracesofwhicharestillvisible.(Deni&
WillMcIntyre/AllStock/PNI)

The First Intermediate Period (c. 2200-2000 BCE) (VII-XI)

Causes:

decliningofroyalpower

growing provincial power of priests and nobles

riseofindependentrulers

economicdeclineduetotheconstructionofpyramids

civilwar

dynastyruledonlypartofEgypt

The Middle Kingdom (c. 2000-1800 BCE) (XI-XII)

Aftertheperiodofconfusionthe governors of Thebes establishedtheMiddle
Kingdomin2052BCE.
12th dynasty restored kings power andpartialcontrolofnobles
ReestablishmentoftradewithPalestine,EthiopiaandNubia.
New capital Thebes
NewdeityAmon-Re.
Theresurgentpowerofnobility,theerosionofcentralauthority,marktheend
oftheMiddleKingdomandbeginningofthe Second Intermediate Period

The Second Intermediate Period (1800-1600 BCE): Hyksos Invasion

(XIII-XVII)
AplotbyHyksos and Nubians tocontrolentireEgypt.Nubiansoccupied
southernwhileHyksosoccupiednorthernpartofEgypt.Supportersof
Egyptianroyalfamilywereinbetween.
DominatedbyHyksoskingshepherdsinvaderssincearound 1800 BCE
DesertandgeographicalpositioncouldnotsaveEgyptthistime
TheywereSemitic-speakingpeopleandtheiroriginwasnotcertain
Establishedrule,controlledtradelinksandhadEgyptiangovernors.
Introduceduse of bronze and new warfare tactics.Theywerethefirsttouse
horse chariot in the battle.
ThepharaohsCamose and Amose drovetheHyksosoutofEgyptin1575
BCE
EgyptiansconqueredthecapitalcityofHyksosAvaris

The New Kingdom Empire (c. 1600-1200 BCE) and After

King Thutmose III builtpowerfularmyandbeganextendingEgyptian
frontiers
ConquestsofNubia, Palestine and Syria resultedinconflict with Hittites
Empire
Strugglebetweenthetwoweakenedboth
Amarna Period (1346-1364 BCE):

religiousstruggleandpriestschallengedpharaoh

Amenhotep IV resistedthepriesthoodofAmonanddevotedhimselfto
Aton sun-disc

His wife Nefertiti supportedhiminthefoundationofnewreligion

ChangedhisnametoAkhenatensatisfiesAtonandmovedcapitalfrom
ThebestoplacecalledTell-el-Amarna,whichmeansHorizonofthe
Sun

God Aton universalandcreatoroftheuniverse;[monotheism]

OppositiontotheworshipofAtonandpersecutionsofAmon-Re
followers

Economicdecline,foreigninvasions,andrevolution.

Tutankhamen restoredtheoldreligionandreturnedcapitaltoThebes
Ramses the Great,whoruled67years,wasamongthelastpowerful
Egyptiankings.HewasalsoknownastombbuilderandfoughtHittitesinthe
battleofKadesh
After 1200 BCE Egypt fall under control of Libyans,Nubians,Assyrians,
Persians,GreeksandRomans

RamsesII,thethirdkingoftheEgyptian19thdynasty,isdepictedinthisstonesculpture.His67-year
reignwasatimeofgreatprosperityandmarkedtheheightofEgyptianmilitarypower,culminatingin
apeacetreaty(1283BC)withtheneighboringHittites.(Scala/ArtResource,NY)

ThegoldfunerarymaskoftheEgyptianpharaohTutankhamen(r.1361-52BC)wasamongthe
itemsthatwerediscoveredinhistombbyEgyptologistHoward Carter in 1922.Tutankhamen
wasonlynineyearsoldwhenhesucceededtothethrone.(Corbis/Charles&JosetteLenars)

Religion: The Basis of Egyptian Civilization

ReligionshapedpoliticalandsociallifeofEgyptiansociety.Itisillustratedin
great pyramids, mummification and religious literature
Religiousbeliefsthebasisforart, medicine, astronomy, literature..
DeitiesworshipedbyEgyptiansnumberedinthousands
Beliefsinanimism, polytheism and monotheism
Spirits couldtakeformsofhumansandanimalsandwerepresenteverywhere
Overatimespecialdeities emergedsuchasHorus,Amon,Re,IsisandOsiris.
Egyptiansspendmoneyandresourcestopleasedeities.Thatiswhythere
weremanyceremoniesandrituals.
Immortalityofthespiritandthequestofpharaohsforimmortality.
Valley of the kings in the West lifegoesfromoneshoretoanother
Mummification and pyramids stonemediumofimmortality
divinekingship+theconceptofmaat[truthandjustice]

The Temple of Luxor,orSouthernSanctuary,atLuxor,Egypt,wasbegunbythe18th-dynastyking

AmenhotepIII(r.1417-1379BC)anddedicatedtoAmon-Re,kingofthegods.Itwasbuiltof
sandstonefromthequarriesofGebelSilsila.(Corbis/VanniArchive)

Osiris,godofthedeadandtheunderworld,wasoneofthemostimportantdeitiesofancientEgypt.
TheEgyptiansexpectedtobejudgedafterdeathandtobepresentedbeforeOsiriswhenfound
innocent.(Corbis/RoberWood)

In this image is a portion of the text of the Book of the Dead. In

the representation, the deceaseds heart is being weighed under
the observation of the deities Isis, Osiris, and Nephthys. Also
present are Maat, Thoth, Hor, and Anubis. The creature kneeling
before the shrine is a monster who will eat the heart if it fails to
pass inspection.

Contributions in Sciences
Religiousactivitystimulatedliteraryactivity
Hieroglyphic writing in3200BCEfoundonstoneandpapyrus.Thiswritings
influencedPhoenicianalphabet
Architecturerepresentedintombsandpyramids
Astronomy

movementsofthestars

365daycalendar,influencedJuliusCaesarcalendar

Mathematics

systemofnumbers
360degreesofacircle
Piratio

Medicine

surgicaltechniquesanddrugs
accuratediagnosis
humananatomy

Arts and architecture

pyramids,tombsandtemples

Fromtheendofthe4thmillenniumBC,hieroglyphics,whicharepictorialsymbolsusedinearly
writingsystems,wereanintegralpartofEgyptianwriting.Thesehieroglyphicswereengravedona
templewallintheancientvillageofKarnak,insouthernEgypt.(Corbis-Bettmann)

AsfarasthescienceofEgyptologyisconcerned,theRosettaStonemightwellbethemostimportant
rockeverfound.Discoveredin1799byFrenchsoldiersduringNapoleon'soccupationofEgypt,it
containsaninscriptioncarvedinbothEgyptianandGreek.SincescholarscouldreadtheGreek
version,theRosettaStoneservedasatoolfordecipheringthepreviouslymysterioushieroglyphics.
(Corbis-Bettmann)

Egyptian Civilization: Political, Economic and Social Life

ThekeytoEgyptiancivilizationwaspolitical system
Pharaohsupremepower.HeliterallyownedEgyptandpeople
Administrative system

Pharaoh

VezierorDPMwasresponsibledirectlytoking.Hemanagedall
departments

Nomarchwasroyalofficialorgovernor

Nomeswereadministrativeunits[22intheUpperEgyptand20inthe
LowerEgypt]
Classes

Pharaoh,priests,nobility,themiddleclass[merchantsandartisans],
soldiersandslaves

The Ancient Near East:

Peoples and Empires

Introduction
Inabout1500BCEemergenceofinternational empires beyondtheriver
valleys
Emergenceofempiresledtothe extension of civilization
Indo-European migration oneofthecausesfortheemergenceofnew
empires
Indo-EuropeansoriginatedfromwideregionsrangingfromSouth-eastern
EuropetotheregionbeyondCaspianSeaorSouthwestAsia[Iran,
AfghanistanandformerRussianRepublics].
Started migrations in about 2000 BCE,whichbroughtthemtoItaly,
Greece,AsiaMinor,Mesopotamia,PersiaandIndia.
FamilyofIndo-European language includeGreek,Latin,German,Slavic,
Sanskrit

The Hebrews: "The Children of Israel [c. 1800 BCE]

Early History

TheHebrewsareSemitic-speaking people

Theyhadatraditionconcerningtheirorigins and history

WrittendowninHebrew Bible knownasOldTestament

Descendants of Abraham whomigratedfromMesopotamiatotheland

ofPalestineinabout1800BCE

SincethenHebrewswereidentifiedas"children of Israel"

Thismigrationtookplaceinaround1800 BCE

DuetofoodshortagetheymigratedtoEgyptinaround1600 BCE

Enslavement,"Exodus"andMosesinabout1300 BCE

Period of wandering andin1220BCEJewishtribesenteredPalestine

Conflict with Philistines

United Kingdom (c. 1000 BCE)

Power vacuum intheNearEast

Around1000BCEemergenceofamonarchyunderSaul, David and
Solomon
BythetimeofKingSolomon(c.971-973BCE)controlledallPalestine
withJerusalemasitscapital
Under Solomon expansion and political, economic and military
organization of life
Solomons building projects
Solomonisbestknownfortheconstructionofthe Temple inthecityof
Jerusalem
HebrewsbeganviewingtheTempleasthesymboliccenteroftheir
religionandhenceoftheHebrewkingdom.

The Divided Kingdom

AfterSolomonsdeathemergenceoftensionsbetweennorthernand
southernHebrewtribes
Kingdom of Israel [10 lost tribes]

Kingdom of Judah [2 tribes]

Samaria
Jerusalem

Assyriansemergedaspowerinthe9thcenturyandin722 BCE they

destroyedKingdomofIsraelwhileKingdomofJudahhadtopaytribute
totheAssyrians.
ThenNeo-BabyloniansconqueredKingdomofJudahin586 BCE and
destroyedtheTemple.BabyloniansdeportedmanyHebrewstoBabylon
[BabylonianCaptivity]
PersiansdestroyedtheNeo-Babyloniansin536 BCE andallowed
Hebrewstoreturnandrebuilttheirtemple.
TherevivedkingdomofJudahsurviveduntiltheconquestofAlexander
theGreatinthe4thcentury.

The Spiritual Dimensions of Israel

AcommitmenttoYahweh"hecausestobe"
HebrewBibleorTorah
LandandGod-Peoplerelationship
ChosenPeople
CovenantwithYahweh
ObediencetothelawofGod
Prophets

ThereadingoftheTorahisafundamentalpartofJewishliturgicalservices.TheTorah,orfirstfive
booksoftheBible,presentsasystemofmoralandreligiousconductandisreveredastheessence
ofdivinerevelationreceivedbyMosesonMountSinai.Here,aboyreadstheTorahaspartofhis
barmitzvahceremony.(MiroVintoniv/Stock,

ThisisHerod'sTempleasreconstructedinamodelofancientJerusalembyarchaeologistMichael
Avi-Yonah.Theactualtemple,builtbyHerodtheGreatinthe1stcenturyBC,wasdestroyedbythe
RomansinAD70.(ArchivePhotos)

The Hittites Empire (ca. 1600-1200 BCE)

Inaround1600 BCE HittitesestablishedempireinAsia Minor
ThefirstIndo-European group torisetothelevelofcivilization
Remainedvirtuallyunknownuntilveryrecently,because100thousandtablets
werediscovereddealingwithHittiteshistory
Indo-EuropeansoriginatedfromwideregionsrangingfromSouth-eastern
EuropetotheregionbeyondCaspianSeaorSouthwestAsia[Iran,
AfghanistanandformerRussianRepublics].
TheywereinAsiaMinorbefore2000BCE
Hittiteswerewarlike people
Ruled Asia Minor, northern Syria, raided Babylon and challenged Egypt
for control of Syria and Palestine.
Mursilis Iin1595BCEraidedBabylonbutreturnedback
Theysucceededduetowell-trainedarmy
Developediron industry
BorrowedseveralfeaturesofMesopotamiancivilization
The Hittite Empire declined in around 1200 BCE

The Assyrian Empire

EmergedafterfalloftheHittitesinaround1200BCE
Establishedpowerfulstatesandextendedcivilization
Semitic-speakingpeople
Theirhomelandwasnorthern Mesopotamia
Their capital Nineveh (modern Mosul, Iraq)
The Assyrian military machine:army;pioneercorps;guerrillawarfare;siege;
terrortactics;ironweapons;horse-drawnwarchariots;beliefthattheirgods
commandedthemtoconquer
By 700 BCE their empire included: Mesopotamia; parts of Iranian plateau;
sections of Asia Minor; Syria; Palestine and Egypt down to Thebes
In 612 BCE AssyriansdefeatedbyacoalitionofMedesandNeo-Babylonians.
CapitalcityofNineveh burned down
Theirrulewassuccessfulduetothefollowing:

Kingenjoyedabsolutepower[greatestkingwasAshurbanipal]

Developedefficientcommunication system

Developedeffectivemilitary leaders and fighters

Abletodeploy troops;Theirarmywasbetween100,000and200,00strong.

Army well-organized and disciplined.

Used Iron weapons;TheAssyrianspearmen,archers,andcavalrymenwere

equippedwithweaponsandarmorofiron.

Used different military tactics

Assyrian Society and Culture

KingrepresentativeofgodAshur
Nobles
Theyimprovedroads,establishedmessengerservice,irrigationto
facilitateeffectiveadministrationofconqueredlands
Hadstrictlaws
Notafraidtomixwithotherpeople
GuardiansofSumerianandBabylonianculture

Neo-Babylonian Empire (c. 600 BCE)

Leader Nebuchadnezzar II
612BCEdestroyedAssyrians
ConquestofJerusalemanddestructionoftheTemplein586BCE
DefeatedbyPersiansin536BCE
Knownfor

Hanging Gardens [built for emperors wife]

Ishtar the Gate of Babylon

Tower of Babylon

Biblical accounts

The Persian Empire or The Achaemenid Empire (c. 550330 BCE)

AryanpeoplewereonIranianplateauasearlyasinabout1100BCE
PersianempiredevelopedfromthatofMedes,whichbecameverystrongin
the6thcentury.ItisalsocalledThe Achaemenid Empire
In612BCEMedesandNeo-BabyloniansdefeatedAssyrians
In around 560 BCE the Persian Cyrus defeated Medes
CyrustheGreat(559-530BCE)fatherofPersia

LydiaandGreekcity-statestakenin547BCE

Mesopotamiatakenin539BCE.

JewscouldreturntoJerusalem;Cyrusshowedmercyandtolerance

Cyrus was:
Skilfulorganizerofempire
Providedtolerance
Wasfavourablebypriesthood
Permittedlocalpeopletobeofficials
Hadareputationformercy
Createda"worldempire"

ExpandingtheEmpire

Cambyses (530-522 BCE)

CapturesEgypt
Titleofpharaoh,525BCE

Darius I (521-486 BCE)

CodifiedEgyptianlaw;builtacanaltolinktheRedSeaand
Mediterranean;buildPersopolis
Persiangreatestextent
Addedthenumberofterritories
RevoltinAsiaMinor[499BCEIonianRevolt]
InBattleofMarathon,in490BCE,Persiansdefeated
AlexandertheGreatin330BCEendedancientPersianEmpire

TheParthians(c.240BCE-220CE)

TheSassanidEmpire(224-651CE)
GoverningtheEmpire

Stable rule and tolerance;Consideredgenerosityandtolerancetobe

moreeffectivethanterrorismandbrutality.CapturedBabylonwithouta
battle

Administrative ability (provinces).20satrapieswithgovernors

RoyalroadSardistoSusa;anetworkofroads

Monarchy/Persianking

Uniformlanguage/Aramaic;empiresbasiclanguageofcommerceand
administration

Economy;taxing;agriculture,irrigation;Taxescouldbepaidwithofficial
coins[Thegolddaric&thesilvershekel]

ProfessionalarmyandPostalservice;ahugearmyof300,000men;Built
thefirstgreatnavy

ThearchitecturalremainsandreliefsculpturesofPersepolis,thePersiancityofthegreatkingsofthe
AchaemenidEmpire,areamongthemostimpressivemonumentsoftheancientworld.Thesearepart
oftheruinsoftheApadana,thegreat,palatialaudiencehall.WhentheApadanawasbuilt,stonewas
usedforthefoundations,doorcasements,columns,andstairways.Wallsofcolorfullyglazedbrick
filledinandaroundtoconnecttheseelements.

DariusIwasthegreatestoftheAchaemenidkings.Heruledfrom522to486BC.Heisseenhere
(seated)inareliefsculpture,alongwithhissuccessor,Xerxes.Dariusisfamousasalawgiver,and
manystoriesweretoldabouthisseverityyetimpartialityinadministeringthelaw.Itappearsthathe
strovetostandardizelegalpracticesalloverhisvastempire.(TheBettmannArchive)

Persian Religion

Zoroastrianism;itinfluencedJudaism,ChristianityandIslam.

ZoroastrianismwasalsosimilartoVedicAryanReligion

Zarathustra/Zoroaster(628-551BCE)wasfounderorprophet-reformer

Zoroasterpreachedamessageofmoralreformduringanageof
materialism,politicalopportunismandethicalindifference

HolyScriptureofZoroastrianismwasZend Avesta, whichwaswrittenin

300CE

Conceptofbelief

Addituionalbeliefs

Ahuramazdawasgodofgoodness[wisegod]
Ahrimanwasgodofevil[spiritofevil]
Strugglebetweengoodandevil
Afterlife
Hellandheaven
Punishment
Freewill

Importanceofwaterandfireasmeansforthepurificationandsacrifice