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Wave fronts
Wave fronts highlight the part of a wave
that is moving together (in phase).
= wavefront
Ripples formed by a
stone falling in water
Rays
Rays highlight the direction of energy
transfer.
Transverse waves
The oscillations are perpendicular to the
direction of energy transfer.
Direction of energy transfer
oscillation
Transverse waves
peak
trough
Transverse waves
Water ripples
Light
On a rope/slinky
Earthquake S
Longitudinal waves
The oscillations are parallel to the direction of
energy transfer.
oscillation
Longitudinal waves
compression
rarefraction
Longitudinal waves
Sound
Slinky
Earthquake P
Displacement - x
This measures the change that has taken place as a
result of a wave passing a particular point.
Zero displacement refers to the average position.
= displacement
Amplitude - A
The maximum displacement from the
mean position.
amplitude
Period - T
The time taken (in seconds) for one complete
oscillation. It is also the time taken for a
complete wave to pass a given point.
Frequency - f
The number of oscillations in one second.
Measured in Hertz.
Wavelength -
The shortest distance between points that
are in phase (points moving together or in
step).
wavelength
Wave speed - v
The speed at which the wave fronts pass
a stationary observer.
330 m.s-1
f = 1/T
T = 1/f
v = /T = f
Lets try some
questions
Representing waves
There are two ways we can represent a
wave in a graph;
Displacement/time graph
This looks at the movement of one point of
the wave over a period of time
displacement
cm
0.1
-1
-2
0.2
0.3
0.4
Time s
Displacement/time graph
This looks at the movement of one point of
the wave over a period of time
IMPORTANT NOTE:
This wave could be
either transverse or
longitudnal
displacement
cm
1
PERIOD
0.1
-1
-2
0.2
0.3
0.4
Time s
Displacement/distance graph
This is a snapshot of the wave at a
particular moment
displacement
cm
0.4
-1
-2
0.8
1.2
1.6
Distance cm
Displacement/distance graph
This is a snapshot of the wave at a
particular moment
IMPORTANT NOTE:
This wave could
also be either
transverse or
longitudnal
displacement
cm
1
WAVELENGTH
0.4
-1
-2
0.8
1.2
1.6
Distance cm
Wave intensity
This is defined as the amount of energy
per unit time flowing through unit area
Wave intensity
For example,
imagine a window
with an area of 1m2.
If one joule of light
energy flows
through that window
every second we
say the light
intensity is 1 W.m-2.
I = P/4d2
where d is the distance from the light
source (in m) and P is the power of the
light source(in W)
I = P/4d2
I a2
(or I = ka2)
I = ka2
If amplitude = 2a,
new intensity = k(2a)2
new intensity = 4ka2
Electromagnetic spectrum
700 - 420 nm
10-4 - 10-6 m
10 - 10 m
-2
10-1 - 103 m
-3
10-7 - 10-8 m
10-9 - 10-11 m
10-12 - 10-14 m
700 - 420 nm
10-4 - 10-6 m
10 - 10 m
-2
10-1 - 103 m
-3
10-7 - 10-8 m
10-9 - 10-11 m
10-12 - 10-14 m
Refraction
When a wave changes speed (normally
when entering another medium) it may
refract (change direction)
Water waves
Water waves travel slower in shallow
water
Sound waves
Sound travels faster in warmer air
Light waves
Snells law
There is a relationship between the speed
of the wave in the two media and the
angles of incidence and refraction
Ray, NOT
wavefronts
Snells law
speed in substance 1
speed in substance 2
sin1
sin2
Snells law
In the case of light only, we usually define a quantity
called the index of refraction for a given medium as
n=
cm
c = sin1/sin2
c
vacuum
cm
Snells law
Thus for two different media
Diffraction
Waves spread as they pass an obstacle or
through an opening
Diffraction
Diffraction is most when the opening or
obstacle is similar in size to the
wavelength of the wave
Diffraction
Diffraction is most when the opening or
obstacle is similar in size to the
wavelength of the wave
Diffraction
Thats why we can
hear people
around a wall but
not see them!
Superposition
Principle of superposition
When two or more waves meet, the
resultant displacement is the sum of the
individual displacements
Superposition
In general, the displacements of two (or
more) waves can be added to produce a
resultant wave. (Note, displacements can
be negative)
Interference patterns
Ripple Tank Simulation
Path difference
Whether there is constructive or
destructive interference observed at a
particular point depends on the path
difference of the two waves
Phase difference
is the time difference or phase angle by
which one wave/oscillation leads or lags
another.
180 or
radians
Phase difference
is the time difference or phase angle by
which one wave/oscillation leads or lags
another.
90 or /2
radians
F = -kx
Graph of motion
A graph of the motion will have this form
displacement
Time
Graph of motion
A graph of the motion will have this form
Amplitude
x0
Period
displacement
Time
Graph of motion
Notice the similarity with a sine curve
2 radians
/2
3/2
angle
Graph of motion
Notice the similarity with a sine curve
Amplitude
x = x0sin
x0
2 radians
/2
3/2
angle
Graph of motion
Amplitude
x0
Period
displacement
Time
Graph of motion
Amplitude
x0
displacement
Period
x = x0sint
Time
When x = 0 at t = 0
Amplitude
x0
displacement
Period
x = x0sint
Time
When x = x0 at t = 0
Amplitude
x0
displacement
Period
x = x0cost
Time
When x = 0 at t = 0
Amplitude
x0
Period
x = x0sint
v = v0cost
displacement
Time
When x = x0 at t = 0
x = x0cost
Amplitude
x0
displacement
Period
v = -v0sint
Time
To summarise!
When x = 0 at t = 0
x = x0sint and v = v0cost
When x = x0 at t = 0
x = x0cost and v = -v0sint
It can also be shown that v = (x02 x2)
and a = -2x
where = 2/T = 2f = (angular frequency in rad.s -1)
Maximum velocity?
When x = 0
At this point the acceleration is zero (no
resultant force at the equilibrium position).
Maximum acceleration?
When x = +/ x0
Oscillating spring
We know that F = -kx
and that for SHM, a = -2x (so F = -m2x)
So -kx = -m2x
k = m2
= (k/m)
Remembering that = 2/T
T = 2(m/k)
S.H.M.
Where is the
kinetic
energy
maxiumum?
Where is the
potential
energy
maximum?
Damping
In most real oscillating systems energy is lost
through friction.
Underdamped
The system makes several oscillations
before coming to rest
Overdamped
The system takes a long time to reach
equilibrium
Critical damping
Equilibrium is reached in the quickest time
Natural frequency
All objects have a natural frequency that
they prefer to vibrate at.
Forced vibrations
If a force is applied at a different frequency
to the natural frequency we get forced
vibrations
Resonance
If the frequency of the external force is
equal to the natural frequency we get
resonance
YouTube - Ground Resonance - Side View
YouTube - breaking a wine glass using resonance
http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=6ai2QFxStxo&feature=relmfu