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Acid Mine Drainage

Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) is produced when

sulfide-bearing material is exposed to oxygen and
water. The production of AMD usually but not
exclusively occurs in iron sulfide-aggregated rocks.
The sulfide minerals oxidize in the presence of water
and oxygen to form acidic, sulfate-rich drainage.
Releases of AMD have low pH, high specific
conductivity, high concentrations of iron, aluminum,
and manganese, and low concentrations of toxic
heavy metals.

Acid generation

1.
2.
3.

Primary ingredients are as follows:

sulfide minerals;
water or a humid atmosphere; and
an oxidant, particularly oxygen from the atmosphere or
from chemical sources
In the majority of cases, bacteria play a major role in
accelerating the rate of acid generation like
acidophiles. Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans is a key
contributor to pyrite oxidation.
Dumps with high permeability have high oxygen
ingress, which contributes to higher chemical reaction
rates, hence, higher temperatures and increased oxygen
ingress through convection.

Acid generation:
The primary factors that determine the rate of acid generation
are:
pH;
Temperature;
Oxygen content of the gas phase, if saturation is less than
100%;
Oxygen concentration in the water phase;
Degree of saturation with water;
Chemical activity of Fe3C;
Surface area of exposed metal sulfide;
Chemical activation energy required to initiate acid generation
Bacterial activity

Chemical Reactions:
Commonly accepted reactions:
2FeS2+7O2+2H2O 2Fe+2 +4SO42 +4H+ (1)
4Fe+2 +O2 + 4H+ 4Fe+3 + 2 H20 (2)
4Fe+3 +12 H2O 4Fe(OH)3 + 12 H+ (3)
FeS2 + I4Fe+3 + 8H2O 15 Fe+2 + 2SO42 +16 H+ (4)

Sources of AMD
Primary sources

Secondary sources

Mine rock dumps

Treatment sludge pounds

Tailings impoundment

Rock cuts

Underground and open pit mine workings

Concentrated load-out

Pumped/nature discharged underground

water

Concentrate spills
along roads

Diffuse seeps from replaced overburden in

rehabilitated areas

Emergency ponds

Construction rock used in roads,

dams, etc.

Stockpiles

Source: Akcil, A., et al., (2006)

Mitigation

High concentrations of heavy metals and other toxic

elements in AMD can severely contaminate surface
and groundwater, as well as soils
AMD formation depend upon the availability of
oxygen and water along with the mineralogy of the
area so predicting the potential for AMD can be
exceedingly challenging and costly
No standardized methods for ranking, measuring and
reducing the risk of AMD
Available treatment technologies are either inefficient
or economically not feasible so most of AMD is left
without any treatment

Prevention/mitigation of AMD
Three ways for prevention and mitigation of AMD:
1.Chemical inhibition of acid generating reactions
2.Inhibition of microbial activity in catalyzing
formation of acid
3.Physical or geotechnical treatments to minimize
water contact and leaching

Chemical methods
Alkaline Addition:
A highly alkaline environment can be developed by loading
trenches with alkaline, usually a combination of soluble
sodium carbonate and crushed limestone is used
Phosphate:
Phosphate can be used as a pyrite oxidation inhibitor. Iron
combines with phosphates to form insoluble iron phosphate
compounds and thus inhibits Fe+2 oxidation hence reduces
acid generation
Coatings and sealants:
Some studies research activities are focussed on the surface
chemistry of pyrite and development of various types of
sealers, coatings and inhibitors to halt acid production

Biological agents/bactericides

Acidophiles survives at low pH

Thiobacillus ferooxidans catalyze the pyrite oxidation
To inhibit the catalytic role of bacteria many
compounds like bactericides and the anionic
surfactants are applied
Most reliable inhibitors are Sodium lauryl sulfate and
alkyl benzene sulfonate
Bactericides are generally water soluble and leaching
time of bactericides from the spoil is uncertain
Uncertainty about the reappearance of sulfur and iron
oxidizing bacteria after the application of bactericides

Physical or geochemical treatments

Controlled placement :
Controlled placement (special handling) is a preventative
measure involving the placement of pyritic or alkaline
material during mining
Two fold role:
1. Inhibition of the acid-forming reactions by maintaining
neutral to alkaline pH
2. Neutralization of any acid formed
Encapsulation/physical barriers :
Isolate or encapsulate pyritic material by using flyash, cements, bentonite, and other clays as
sealants and flow barriers

Physical or geochemical treatments

contd.
Water management :
Water management strategies both during and after mining are
another option for reducing acid generation, which can be
achieved by
Diversions of surface drainage away from pyritic material
or through alkaline material
Rough grading of mine rejects to prevent ponding and
subsequent infiltration
Prompt removal of pit water can lessen the amount and
severity of acid generated
Isolation of acidic water from non-contaminated sources to
reduce the quantity of water requiring treatment
Construction of drainage systems to route water away from
contact with acid forming material

Control of AMD migration

Water entry into the site of acid formation may be
controlled by:
1. Diversion of surface water flowing towards the
site of pollution
2. Prevention of groundwater infiltration into the
pollution site
3. Prevention of hydrological water seepage into the
affected areas
4. Controlled placement of acid-generating waste

Case studies:

Hydrogeochemical characteristics of
AMD and water pollution at Makum
Coalfiled, India
Management of AMD in Meghalaya

Makum Coalfield
Sites:
Two open cast mines Tikak an Tirap
Three underground Baragolai, Ledo and Tipong
Coal Mine Discharge:
pH of direct mine discharge ranged from 2.3- 7.6
with an average 4.2
EC varied from between 785-6760 S/cm (average
3227 S/cm)
Mine discharge from Ledo and Baragolai is alkaline
in nature while of Tirap, Tikak ad Tipong are highly
acidic

Makum Coalfield Contd.

Creek and river water:
The pH of river and creek water ranged from 2.57.4 with an
average of 5.1; whereas, EC varied from 1075228 S/cm
(average 945 S/cm)
The concentrations of Fe,Mn, Cd and Pb in the creeks carrying
AMD are above their respective maximum permissible limits of
USEPA; whereas concentration of Cr, Cu and Zn do not exceed
their respective limit
Concentrations of metals in AMD impacted creeks are much
above in comparison to that of river samples
Ground water:
pH of ground water ranged from 4.27.8 (average 5.8); whereas,
EC from 42542 S/cm (average 248 S/cm), Fe (0.0553.9
mg/L) and SO4 2 (8.394.5 mg/L). Concentrations of Mn, Fe
and Pb are above the maximum permissible limits in most of the
samples; however, Al, Ni, Zn, Cr and Cu are within limit

Management of AMD in
Meghalaya

Physico-chemical analysis of freshly collected coal samples (from

Bapung and Sutunga coal deposits) are shown in table:
Proximate Analysis

MB

MS

Moisture

1.5

2.9

Ash

11.5

20.0

Volatile matter

40.5

35.6

Fixed Carbon

46.5

41.5

Total Sulphur

4.23

3.46

Pyretic Sulphur

4.23

0.15

Sulphate sulphur

0.43

0.29

Organic sulphur

3.54

2.90

The

coals, coal fines, and mine rejects of Meghalaya coal

mines are acid producing materials.

References

Diz HR. Chemical and biological treatment of acid mine

drainage for the removal of heavy metals and acidity, Ph.D.
thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, USA;
1997.
Equeenuddin, S.M., et al., Hydrogeochemical characteristics of
acid mine drainage and water pollution at Makum Coalfield,
India, Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 105 (2010) 75-82
Akcil, A., Koldas, S., Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): causes,
treatment and case studies, Journal of Cleaner Production, 14
(2006) 1139-1145
Baruah, B. P., Khare, P., Rao, P.G., Management of Acid Mine
Drainage in Indian coal mines, Coal Chemistry Division, NorthEast Institute of Science and Technology, Jorhat- 785006, Assam