Chapter 6

Linear Transformations
6.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations
6.2 The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation
6.3 Matrices for Linear Transformations
6.4 Transition Matrices and Similarity
6.5 Applications of Linear Transformations
6.1

6.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations

A function T that maps a vector space V into a vector space W:

T : V mapping

W,

V ,W : vector spaces

V: the domain ( ) of T
W: the codomain ( )
of T
Image of v under T ( T v ):

If v is a vector in V and w is a vector in W such that

T ( v) w,
then w is called the image of v under T
(For each v, there is only one w)

The range of T (T ):
The set of all images of vectors in V (see the figure on the
next slide)
6.2

The preimage of w (w ):
The set of all v in V such that T(v)=w
(For each w, v may not be unique)
The graphical representations of the domain, codomain, and range
For example, V is R3, W is R3, and T
is the orthogonal projection of any
vector (x, y, z) onto the xy-plane, i.e.
T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
(we will use the above example many
times to explain abstract notions)
Then the domain is R3, the codomain
is R3, and the range is xy-plane (a
subspace of the codomian R3)
(2, 1, 0) is the image of (2, 1, 3)
The preimage of (2, 1, 0) is (2, 1, s),
6.3
where s is any real number

Ex 1: A function from R2 into R2

T : R 2 R 2 v (v1 , v2 ) R 2
T (v1 , v2 ) (v1 v2 , v1 2v2 )

(a) Find the image of v=(-1,2) (b) Find the preimage of w=(-1,11)
Sol:
(a) v ( 1, 2)
T ( v) T ( 1, 2) ( 1 2, 1 2(2)) ( 3, 3)

(b) T ( v) w ( 1, 11)
T (v1 , v2 ) (v1 v2 , v1 2v2 ) (1, 11)

v1 v2 1
v1 2v2 11
v1 3, v2 4 Thus {(3, 4)} is the preimage of w=(-1, 11)
6.4

Linear Transformation ( ):

V , Wvector spaces
T : V WA linear tra nsformatio n of V into W if the
following two properties are true
(1) T (u v ) T (u) T ( v ), u, v V
(2) T (cu) cT (u),

c R

6.5

Notes:
(1) A linear transformation is said to be operation preserving
(because the same result occurs whether the operations of addition
and scalar multiplication are performed before or after the linear
transformation is applied)

T (u v ) T (u) T ( v )
Addition
in V

Addition
in W

T (cu) cT (u)
Scalar
multiplication
in V

Scalar
multiplication
in W

(2) A linear transformation T : V V from a vector space into

itself is called a linear operator ( )

6.6

Ex 2: Verifying a linear transformation T from R2 into R2

T (v1 , v2 ) (v1 v2 , v1 2v2 )
Pf:
u (u1 , u 2 ), v (v1 , v2 ) : vector in R 2 , c : any real number
(1) Vector addition :
u v (u1 , u2 ) (v1 , v2 ) (u1 v1 , u2 v2 )

T (u v ) T (u1 v1 , u 2 v2 )
((u1 v1 ) (u2 v2 ), (u1 v1 ) 2(u2 v2 ))
((u1 u 2 ) (v1 v2 ), (u1 2u2 ) (v1 2v2 ))
(u1 u2 , u1 2u 2 ) (v1 v2 , v1 2v2 )
T (u) T ( v )
6.7

(2) Scalar multiplica tion

cu c(u1 , u2 ) (cu1 , cu2 )
T (cu) T (cu1 , cu 2 ) (cu1 cu 2 , cu1 2cu 2 )
c(u1 u 2 , u1 2u 2 )
cT (u)

Therefore, T is a linear transformation

6.8

Ex 3: Functions that are not linear transformations

(a) f ( x) sin x
sin( x1 x2 ) sin( x1 ) sin( x2 )
(f(x) = sin x is not a linear

sin( 2 3 ) sin( 2 ) sin( 3 ) transformation)

(b) f ( x) x 2
( x1 x2 ) 2 x12 x22
(1 2) 2 12 2 2

(f(x) = x2 is not a linear transformation)

(c) f ( x) x 1
f ( x1 x2 ) x1 x2 1
f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) ( x1 1) ( x2 1) x1 x2 2
f ( x1 x2 ) f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) (f(x) = x+1 is not a linear transformation,
although it is a linear function)

In fact, f (cx) cf ( x)

6.9

Notes: Two uses of the term linear.

(1) f ( x) x 1 is called a linear function because its
graph is a line
(2) f ( x) x 1 is not a linear transformation from a vector
space R into R because it preserves neither vector
addition nor scalar multiplication

6.10

Zero transformation ( ):
T :V W
T ( v ) 0, v V
Identity transformation ( ):
T :V V
T ( v ) v, v V
Theorem 6.1: Properties of linear transformations

T : V W , u, v V
(1) T (0) 0 (T(cv) = cT(v) for c=0)
(2) T ( v ) T ( v) (T(cv) = cT(v) for c=-1)
(3) T (u v) T (u) T ( v) (T(u+(-v))=T(u)+T(-v) and property (2))
(4) If v c1v1 c2 v2 cn vn ,
then T ( v) T (c1v1 c2 v2 cn vn )
c1T (v1 ) c2T (v2 ) cnT (vn )
(Iteratively using T(u+v)=T(u)+T(v) and T(cv) = cT(v))

6.11

Ex 4: Linear transformations and bases

Let T : R 3 R 3 be a linear transformation such that
T (1,0,0) ( 2,1,4)
T (0,1,0) (1,5,2)
T (0,0,1) (0,3,1)

Find T(2, 3, -2)

Sol:
(2,3,2) 2(1,0,0) 3(0,1,0) 2(0,0,1)
According to the fourth property on the previous slide that

T
(
c
v

c
v

c
v
)

c
T
(
v
)

c
T
(
v
)

c
T
(
v
)
1 1
2 2
n n
1
1
2
2
n
n

T (2,3,2) 2T (1,0,0) 3T (0,1,0) 2T (0,0,1)

2(2,1,4) 3(1,5,2) 2T (0,3,1)
( 7 ,7 ,0 )

6.12

Ex 5: A linear transformation defined by a matrix

0
3
2
3
1
The function T : R R is defined as T ( v ) Av 2

(a) Find T ( v), where v (2, 1)

v1
v2

(b) Show that T is a linear transformation form R 2 into R 3

Sol:

(a) v (2, 1)

R 2 vector R 3 vector

0
3
T ( v ) Av 2
1

T (2,1) (6,3,0)

2
1

6
3

0

(b) T (u v) A(u v) Au Av T (u) T ( v)

T (cu) A(cu) c( Au) cT (u)

(vector addition)
(scalar
6.13
multiplication)

Theorem 6.2: The linear transformation defined by a matrix

Let A be an mn matrix. The function T defined by
T ( v ) Av
is a linear transformation from Rn into Rm

Note:

R n vector
a11
a21
Av

am1

a12 a1n
a22 a2 n

am 2 amn

T ( v ) Av

R m vector

v1 a11v1 a12v2 a1n vn

v2 a21v1 a22v2 a2 n vn

vn am1v1 am 2 v2 amnvn

T : Rn Rm

If T(v) can represented by Av, then T is a linear transformation

If the size of A is mn, then the domain of T is Rn and the
codomain of T is Rm

6.14

Ex 7: Rotation in the plane

Show that the L.T. T : R 2 R 2 given by the matrix
cos
A
sin

sin
cos

has the property that it rotates every vector in R2

counterclockwise about the origin through the angle
Sol:
(Polar coordinates: for every point on the xyv ( x, y ) (r cos , r sin ) plane, it can be represented by a set of (r, ))
r the length of v x 2 y 2
(
)
the angle from the positive
x-axis counterclockwise to
the vector v

T(v
)

6.15

 cos
sin

x cos
y sin
r cos cos r sin sin

r sin cos r cos sin

r cos( )

r sin( )

T ( v ) Av

sin
cos

sin
cos

r cos
r sin

according to the addition

formula of trigonometric
identities (
)

r remain the same, that means the length of T(v) equals

the
length of v
+ the angle from the positive x-axis counterclockwise to
vector
Thus,the
T(v)
is theT(v)
vector that results from rotating the vector v
counterclockwise through the angle
6.16

Ex 8: A projection in R3
The linear transformation T : R 3 R 3 is given by
1 0 0
A 0 1 0

0
0
0

is called a projection in R3
1 0 0 x
If v is ( x, y, z ), Av 0 1 0 y
0 0 0 z

x
y

In other words, T maps every vector in R3

to its orthogonal projection in the xyplane, as shown in the right figure

6.17

Ex 9: The transpose function is a linear transformation from

Mmn into Mn m

T ( A) AT

(T : M mn M nm )

Show that T is a linear transformation

Sol:
A, B M mn
T ( A B) ( A B)T AT B T T ( A) T ( B)
T (cA) (cA)T cAT cT ( A)
Therefore, T (the transpose function) is a linear transformation
from Mmn into Mnm
6.18

Keywords in Section 6.1:

function:

domain:

codomain:

image of v under T: T v

range of T: T

preimage of w: w

linear transformation:

linear operator:

zero transformation:

identity transformation:
6.19

6.2 The Kernel and Range of a Linear Transformation

Kernel of a linear transformation T ( T ):

Let T : V W be a linear transformation. Then the set of
all vectors v in V that satisfy T ( v ) 0 is called the kernel
of T and is denoted by ker(T)
ker(T ) {v | T ( v ) 0, v V }
For example, V is R3, W is R3, and T is the
orthogonal projection of any vector (x, y, z)
onto the xy-plane, i.e. T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
Then the kernel of T is the set consisting of
(0, 0, s), where s is a real number, i.e.

ker(T ) {(0, 0, s) | s is a real number}

6.20

Ex 1: Finding the kernel of a linear transformation

T ( A) AT (T : M 32 M 23 )

Sol:
0 0
ker(T ) 0 0

0
0

Ex 2: The kernel of the zero and identity transformations

(a) If T(v) = 0 (the zero transformation T : V W ), then
ker(T ) V
(b) If T(v) = v (the identity transformation T : V V ), then
ker(T ) {0}
6.21

Ex 5: Finding the kernel of a linear transformation

x1
1 1 2
3
2
T ( x ) Ax
x
(
T
:
R

R
)
2

1 2 3 x
3
ker(T ) ?
Sol:
ker(T ) {( x1 , x2 , x3 ) | T ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) (0, 0), and ( x1, x2 , x3 ) R 3}
T ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) (0,0)

1 1 2
1 2
3

x1
x2 0
0
x3
6.22

 1 1 2 0
G.-J. E.

1 2 3 0

1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0

x1 t
1
x2 t t 1


x
t
3
1
ker(T ) {t (1,1,1) | t is a real number }
span{( 1,1,1)}

6.23

Theorem 6.3: The kernel is a subspace of V

The kernel of a linear transformation T : V W is a
subspace of the domain V
Pf:

T (0) 0 (by Theorem 6.1) ker(T ) is a nonempty subset of V

Let u and v be vectors in the kernel of T . Then

T (u v ) T (u) T ( v ) 0 0 0

(u ker(T ), v ker(T ) u v ker(T ))

T (cu) cT (u) c0 0

(u ker(T ) cu ker(T ))

T is a linear transformation

Thus, ker(T ) is a subspace of V (according to Theorem 4.5

that a nonempty subset of V is a subspace of V if it is closed
under vector addition and scalar multiplication)
6.24

Ex 6: Finding a basis for the kernel

Let T : R 5 R 4 be defined by T ( x) Ax, where x is in R 5 and
1
2
A
1

2 0
1 3
0 2
0 0

1 1
1 0
0 1

2 8

Find a basis for ker(T) as a subspace of R5

Sol:
To find ker(T) means to find all x satisfying T(x) = Ax = 0.
Thus we need to form the augmented matrix A 0 first
6.25

1 1 0
1 3 1 0 0

G.-J. E.
1 0 2 0 1 0

0 0 0 2 8 0
1
2

x1
2 s t
x
s 2t

x x3
s s

4
t
4

x5

1 0
0 1 1 0 2 0
0 0 0 1 4 0

0 0 0 0 0 0
s
t

1 0

2 1
1 2

1 t 0

0 4
0 1

B (2, 1, 1, 0, 0), (1, 2, 0, 4, 1) : one basis for the kernel of T

6.26

Corollary to Theorem 6.3:

Let T : R n R m be the linear fransforma tion given by T (x) Ax.
Then the kernel of T is equal to the solution space of Ax 0

T (x) Ax (a linear transformation T : R n R m )

ker(T ) NS ( A) x | Ax 0, x R n (subspace of R n )

The kernel of T equals the nullspace of A (which is defined

in Theorem 4.16 on p.239) and these two are both subspaces
of Rn )
So, the kernel of T is sometimes called the nullspace of T

6.27

Range of a linear transformation T ( T ):

Let T : V W be a linear tra nsformatio n. Then the set of all
vectors w in W that are images of any vector s in V is called the
range of T and is denoted by range (T )
range (T ) {T ( v ) | v V }
For the orthogonal projection of
any vector (x, y, z) onto the xyplane, i.e. T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
The domain is V=R3, the codomain
is W=R3, and the range is xy-plane
(a subspace of the codomian R3)
Since T(0, 0, s) = (0, 0, 0) = 0, the
kernel of T is the set consisting of
(0, 0, s), where s is a real number

6.28

Theorem 6.4: The range of T is a subspace of W

The range of a linear tra nsformatio n T : V W is a subspace of W

Pf:
Q T (0) 0 (Theorem 6.1)
range (T ) is a nonempty subset of W
Since T (u) and T ( v ) are vectors in range( T ), and we have
because u v V

T (u) T ( v ) T (u v ) range (T )
T is a linear transformation

cT (u) T (cu) range (T )

because cu V

Range of T is closed under vector addition

because T (u), T ( v), T (u v) range(T )

Range of T is closed under scalar multi

plication because T (u) and T ( cu) range(T )

Thus, range(T ) is a subspace of W (according to Theorem 4.5

that a nonempty subset of W is a subspace of W if it is closed
under vector addition and scalar multiplication)
6.29

Notes:
T : V W is a linear transformation

(1) ker(T ) is subspace of V (Theorem 6.3)

( 2) range (T ) is subspace of W (Theorem 6.4)

6.30

Corollary to Theorem 6.4:

Let T : R n R m be the linear tra nsformatio n given by T (x) Ax.
The range of T is equal to the column space of A, i.e. range (T ) CS ( A)
(1) According to the definition of the range of T(x) = Ax, we know that the
range of T consists of all vectors b satisfying Ax=b, which is equivalent to
find all vectors b such that the system Ax=b is consistent
(2) Ax=b can be rewritten as

a11

Ax x1 21 x 2
M

a
m1

a 12
a 22
L
M

a m 2

a1n
a
xn 2 n b
M

amn

Therefore, the system Ax=b is consistent iff we can find (x1, x2,, xn)
such that b is a linear combination of the column vectors of A, i.e.b CS ( A)
Thus, we can conclude that the range consists of all vectors b, which is a linear
combination of the column vectors of A or said b CS ( A) . So, the column space
6.31
of the matrix A is the same as the range of T, i.e. range(T) = CS(A)

Use our example to illustrate the corollary to Theorem 6.4:

For the orthogonal projection of any vector (x, y, z) onto the xyplane, i.e. T(x, y, z) = (x, y, 0)
According to the above analysis, we already knew that the range
of T is the xy-plane, i.e. range(T)={(x, y, 0)| x and y are real
numbers}
T can be defined by a matrix A as follows

1 0 0
1 0 0
A 0 1 0 , such that 0 1 0
0 0 0
0 0 0

x
x
y y
z
0

The column space of A is as follows, which is just the xy-plane

x1
1
0 0
CS ( A) x1 0 x 2 1 x3 0 x2 , where x1 , x2 R
0
0 0
0

6.32

Ex 7: Finding a basis for the range of a linear transformation

Let T : R 5 R 4 be defined by T ( x) Ax, where x is R 5 and
1
2
A
1

2 0
1 3
0 2
0 0

1 1
1 0
0 1

2 8

Find a basis for the range of T

Sol:
Since range(T) = CS(A), finding a basis for the range of T is
equivalent to fining a basis for the column space of A
6.33

1 1
1 0
A

G.-J. E.
1 0 2 0 1

0
0
0
2
8

c1 c2 c3 c4 c5
1
2

2
1

0
3

1
0
0
0
w1

0 2 0 1
1 1 0 2

B
0 0 1 4

0 0 0 0
w2 w3 w4 w5

w1 , w2 , and w4 are indepdnent, so w1 , w2 , w4 can

form a basis for CS ( B)
Q Row operations will not affect the dependency among columns
c1 , c2 , and c4 are indepdnent, and thus c1 , c2 , c4 is
a basis for CS ( A)
That is, (1, 2, 1, 0), (2, 1, 0, 0), (1, 1, 0, 2) is a basis
for the range of T
6.34

Rank of a linear transformation T:VW ( T

rank(
): T ) the dimension of the range of T dim(range(T ))

According to the corollary to Thm. 6.4, range(T) = CS(A), so dim(range(T)) = dim(CS(A))

Nullity of a linear transformation T:VW ( T

nullity(
):
T ) the dimension of the kernel of T dim(ker(T ))

According to the corollary to Thm. 6.3, ker(T) = NS(A), so dim(ker(T)) = dim(NS(A))

Note:
If T : R n R m is a linear transformation given by T (x) Ax, then
rank(T ) dim(range(T )) dim(CS ( A)) rank( A)
nullity(T ) dim(ker(T )) dim( NS ( A)) nullity( A)

The dimension of the row (or column) space of a matrix A is called the rank of
NS ( A) {x | Ax 0}
A
The dimension of the nullspace of A (
) is called the nullity6.35

Theorem 6.5: Sum of rank and nullity

Let T: V W be a linear transformation from an n-dimensional
vector space V (i.e. the dim(domain of T) is n) into a vector
space W. Then
rank(T ) nullity(T ) n
(i.e. dim(range of T ) dim(kernel of T ) dim(domain of T ))
You can image that the dim(domain of
T) should equals the dim(range of T)
originally
But some dimensions of the domain of
T is absorbed by the zero vector in W
So the dim(range of T) is smaller than
the dim(domain of T) by the number of
how many dimensions of the domain
of T are absorbed by the zero vector,
which is exactly the dim(kernel of T) 6.36

Pf:

Let T be represente d by an m n matrix A, and assume rank( A) r

(1) rank(T ) dim(range of T ) dim(column space of A) rank( A) r

(2) nullity(T ) dim(kernel of T ) dim(null space of A) n r

rank (T ) nullity (T ) r (n r ) n

according to Thm. 4.17 where

rank(A) + nullity(A) = n

Here we only consider that T is represented by an mn matrix A. In

the next section, we will prove that any linear transformation from an
n-dimensional space to an m-dimensional space can be represented
by mn matrix

6.37

Ex 8: Finding the rank and nullity of a linear transformation

Find the rank and nullity of the linear tra nsformatio n T : R 3 R 3
define by
1 0 2
A 0 1 1
0 0 0

Sol:

rank (T ) rank ( A) 2
nullity (T ) dim( domain of T ) rank (T ) 3 2 1
The rank is determined by the number of leading 1s, and the
nullity by the number of free variables (columns without leading
1s)
6.38

Ex 9: Finding the rank and nullity of a linear transformation

Let T : R 5 R 7 be a linear transformation
(a) Find the dimension of the kernel of T if the dimension
of the range of T is 2
(b) Find the rank of T if the nullity of T is 4
(c) Find the rank of T if ker(T ) {0}

Sol:
(a) dim(domain of T ) n 5
dim(kernel of T ) n dim(range of T ) 5 2 3

(b) rank(T ) n nullity(T ) 5 4 1

(c) rank(T ) n nullity(T ) 5 0 5
6.39

One-to-one ( ):
A function T : V W is called one-to-one if the preimage of
every w in the range consists of a single vector. This is equivalent
to saying that T is one-to-one iff for all u and v in V , T (u) T ( v)
implies that u v

one-to-one

not one-to-one
6.40

Theorem 6.6: One-to-one linear transformation

Let T : V W be a linear transformation. Then
T is one-to-one iff ker(T ) {0}

Pf:
() Suppose T is one-to-one
Then T ( v) 0 can have only one solution : v 0
i.e. ker(T ) {0}

Due to the fact

that T(0) = 0 in
Thm. 6.1

() Suppose ker(T )={0} and T (u)=T (v)

T (u v ) T (u) T ( v ) 0
T is a linear transformation, see Property 3 in Thm. 6.1

u v ker(T ) u v 0 u v
T is one-to-one (because T (u) T ( v) implies that u v )

6.41

Ex 10: One-to-one and not one-to-one linear transformation

(a) The linear transformation T : M mn M nm given by T ( A) AT
is one-to-one
because its kernel consists of only the mn zero matrix
(b) The zero transformation T : R 3 R 3 is not one-to-one
because its kernel is all of R3

6.42

Onto ( ):
A function T : V W is said to be onto if every element
in W has a preimage in V

(T is onto W when W is equal to the range of T)

Theorem 6.7: Onto linear transformations

Let T: V W be a linear transformation, where W is finite
dimensional. Then T is onto if and only if the rank of T is equal
to the dimension of W
rank (T ) dim( range of T ) dim( W )
The definition of
the rank of a linear
transformation

The definition
of onto linear
transformations

6.43

Theorem 6.8: One-to-one and onto linear transformations

Let T : V W be a linear transformation with vector space V and W

both of dimension n. Then T is one-to-one if and only if it is onto
Pf:

() If T is one-to-one, then ker(T ) {0} and dim(ker(T )) 0

Thm. 6.5

dim( range (T )) n dim(ker( T )) n dim( W )

Consequently, T is onto

According to the definition of dimension

(on p.227) that if a vector space V
consists of the zero vector alone, the
dimension of V is defined as zero

() If T is onto, then dim( range of T ) dim( W ) n

Thm. 6.5

dim(ker( T )) n dim( range of T ) n n 0 ker(T ) {0}

Therefore, T is one-to-one

6.44

Ex 11:
The linear transformation T : R n R m is given by T (x) Ax. Find the nullity
and rank of T and determine whether T is one-to-one, onto, or neither
1 2 0
(a) A 0 1 1
0 0 1

1 2
(b) A 0 1
0 0

Sol:
= dim(R ) =
n
n

(c) A

= dim(range
of T)
= # of
leading 1s

1 2 0
0 1 1

= (1) (2) =
dim(ker(T))

T:RnRm

dim(domain
of T) (1)

rank(T)
(2)

nullity(T
)

(a) T:R3R3

(b) T:R2R3

(c) T:R3R2
(d) T:R3R3

1 2 0
(d) A 0 1 1
0 0 0
If nullity(T)
=
dim(ker(T))
=0

If rank(T) =
dim(Rm) = m

1-1

onto

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

Yes

No

No

6.45

Isomorphism ( ):
A linear tra nsformatio n T : V W that is one to one and onto
is called an isomorphis m. Moreover, if V and W are vector spaces
such that there exists an isomorphis m from V to W , then V and W
are said to be isomorphic to each other

Theorem 6.9: Isomorphic spaces ( ) and dimension

Two finite-dimensional vector space V and W are isomorphic
if and only if they are of the same dimension
Pf:
() Assume that V is isomorphic to W , where V has dimension n

There exists a L.T. T : V W that is one to one and onto

Q T is one-to-one
dim(V) = n
dim(ker( T )) 0
dim( range of T ) dim( domain of T ) dim(ker( T )) n 0 6.46
n

Q T is onto
dim( range of T ) dim(W ) n
Thus dim(V ) dim(W ) n

() Assume that V and W both have dimension n

Let B v1 , v 2 ,L ,v n be a basis of V and

B ' w1 , w 2 , L ,w n be a basis of W

Then an arbitrary vector in V can be represente d as

v c1 v1 c2 v 2 cn v n
and you can define a L.T. T : V W as follows
w T ( v ) c1w1 c2 w 2 L cn w n (by defining T (v i ) w i )
6.47

Since B ' is a basis for V, {w1, w2,wn} is linearly

independent, and the only solution for w=0 is c1=c2==cn=0
So with w=0, the corresponding v is 0, i.e., ker(T) = {0}
T is one - to - one
By Theorem 6.5, we can derive that dim(range of T) =
dim(domain of T) dim(ker(T)) = n 0 = n = dim(W)
T is onto
Since this linear transformation is both one-to-one and onto,
then V and W are isomorphic
6.48

Note
Theorem 6.9 tells us that every vector space with dimension
n is isomorphic to Rn

Ex 12: (Isomorphic vector spaces)

The following vector spaces are isomorphic to each other
(a) R 4 4 - space
(b) M 41 space of all 4 1 matrices
(c) M 22 space of all 2 2 matrices
(d) P3 ( x) space of all polynomials of degree 3 or less
(e) V {( x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , 0), xi are real numbers}(a subspace of R 5 )
6.49

Keywords in Section 6.2:

kernel of a linear transformation T: T

range of a linear transformation T: T

rank of a linear transformation T: T

nullity of a linear transformation T: T

one-to-one:

onto:

Isomorphism (one-to-one and onto):

isomorphic space:

6.50

6.3 Matrices for Linear Transformations

Two representations of the linear transformation T:R3R3 :

(1) T ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) (2 x1 x2 x3 , x1 3 x2 2 x3 ,3 x2 4 x3 )

2 1 1
(2) T ( x) Ax 1 3 2
0 3 4

x1
x
2
x3

Three reasons for matrix representation of a linear transformation:

It is simpler to write

It is simpler to read

It is more easily adapted for computer use

6.51

Theorem 6.10: Standard matrix for a linear transformation

Let T : R n R m be a linear trtansformation such that
a11

T (e1 ) 21 , T (e 2 )
M

a
m1

a 12
a1n
a
a 22
, L , T (e n ) 2 n ,
M
M

a m 2
amn

where {e1 , e 2 ,K , e n } is a standard basis for R n . Then the m n

matrix whose n columns correspond to T (ei ),
a11 a12
a
a22
21

A T (e1 ) T (e 2 ) L T (e n )
M M

am1 am 2

L
L
O
L

a1n
a2 n
,
M

amn

is such that T ( v) Av for every v in R n , A is called the

standard matrix for T (T)

6.52

Pf:

v1

v 2 v1
M

1


0
v 2

0
1
L
M
0

0
v n
v1e1 v2e 2 L vne n
M

1

T is a linear transformation T ( v) T (v1e1 v2e 2 L vne n )

T (v1e1 ) T (v2e 2 ) L T (vne n )
v1T (e1 ) v2T (e 2 ) L vnT (en )
If A T (e1 ) T (e 2 ) L T (e n ) , then

a11
a21
Av

am1

a12
a22

am 2

a1n v1 a11v1 a12v2 a1n vn

a2 n v2 a21v1 a22v2 a2 n vn

amn vn am1v1 am 2 v2 amn vn

6.53

 a11
a 12
a1n
a
a
a
v1 21 v 2 22 vn 2 n






am1
a m 2
amn
v1T (e1 ) v2T (e 2 ) vnT (e n )
Therefore, T ( v ) Av for each v in R n

Note
Theorem 6.10 tells us that once we know the image of every
vector in the standard basis (that is T(ei)), you can use the
properties of linear transformations to determine T(v) for any
v in V
6.54

Ex 1: Finding the standard matrix of a linear transformation

Find the standard matrix for the L.T. T : R 3 R 2 defined by
T ( x, y , z ) ( x 2 y , 2 x y )

Sol:
Vector Notation
T (e1 ) T (1, 0, 0) (1, 2)

T (e 2 ) T (0, 1, 0) (2, 1)

T (e3 ) T (0, 0, 1) (0, 0)

Matrix Notation

T (e1 ) T ( 0 )

1
2

0
2

T (e 2 ) T ( 1 )
1

0
0

T (e3 ) T ( 0 )

0
0

6.55

A T (e1 ) T (e 2 ) T (e3 )
1 2 0

2
1
0

Check:
x
x
1 2 0 x 2 y
A y
y

2 1 0 2 x y
z
z
i.e., T ( x, y, z ) ( x 2 y, 2 x y )

Note: a more direct way to construct the standard matrix

1 2 0
A
2 1 0

1x 2 y 0 z
2 x 1y 0 z

The first (second) row actually

represents the linear transformation
function to generate the first (second)
component of the target vector
6.56

Ex 2: Finding the standard matrix of a linear transformation

The linear transformation T : R 2 R 2 is given by projecting
each point in R 2 onto the x - axis. Find the standard matrix for T

Sol:
T ( x , y ) ( x , 0)

1 0
A T (e1 ) T (e 2 ) T (1, 0) T (0, 1)

0
0

Notes:
(1) The standard matrix for the zero transformation from Rn into Rm
is the mn zero matrix
(2) The standard matrix for the identity transformation from Rn into
Rn is the nn identity matrix In
6.57

Composition of T1:RnRm with T2:RmRp :

T ( v ) T2 (T1 ( v )), v R n
This composition is denoted by T T2 oT1

Theorem 6.11: Composition of linear transformations (

)
Let T1 : R n R m and T2 : R m R p be linear transformations
with standard matrices A1 and A2 ,then
(1) The composition T : R n R p , defined by T ( v) T2 (T1 ( v)),
is still a linear transformation
(2) The standard matrix A for T is given by the matrix product
A A2 A1

6.58

Pf:
(1) (T is a linear transformation)
Let u and v be vectors in R n and let c be any scalar. Then
T (u v) T2 (T1 (u v )) T2 (T1 (u) T1 ( v))
T2 (T1 (u)) T2 (T1 ( v)) T (u) T ( v)
T (cv ) T2 (T1 (cv )) T2 (cT1 ( v )) cT2 (T1 ( v )) cT ( v )

(2) ( A2 A1 is the standard matrix for T )

T ( v ) T2 (T1 ( v )) T2 ( A1 v ) A2 A1 v ( A2 A1 ) v

Note:
T1 T2 T2 T1
6.59

Ex 3: The standard matrix of a composition

Let T1 and T2 be linear transformations from R 3 into R 3 s.t.
T1 ( x, y, z ) (2 x y, 0, x z )
T2 ( x, y, z ) ( x y, z, y )

Find the standard matrices for the compositions T T2 oT1

and T ' T1 oT2

Sol:
2 1 0
A1 0 0 0 (standard matrix for T1 )
1 0 1
1 1 0
A2 0 0 1 (standard matrix for T2 )
0 1 0

6.60

The standard matrix for T T2 T1

1 1 0 2 1 0 2 1 0
A A2 A1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1

0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0

The standard matrix for T ' T1 T2

2 1 0
A' A1 A2 0 0 0
1 0 1

1 1 0 2 2 1
0 0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0 0

6.61

Inverse linear transformation ( ):

If T1 : R n R n and T2 : R n R n are L.T. s.t. for every v in R n
T2 (T1 ( v )) v and T1 (T2 ( v )) v

Then T2 is called the inverse of T1 and T1 is said to be invertible

Note:
If the transformation T is invertible, then the inverse is
unique and denoted by T1

6.62

Theorem 6.12: Existence of an inverse transformation

Let T : R n R n be a linear transformation with standard matrix A,
Then the following condition are equivalent

(1) T is invertible
(2) T is an isomorphism
(3) A is invertible

Note:

For (2) (1), you can imagine that

since T is one-to-one and onto, for every
w in the codomain of T, there is only one
preimage v, which implies that T-1(w) =v
can be a L.T. and well-defined, so we can
infer that T is invertible
On the contrary, if there are many
preimages for each w, it is impossible to
find a L.T to represent T-1 (because for a
L.T, there is always one input and one
output), so T cannot be invertible

If T is invertible with standard matrix A, then the standard

matrix for T1 is A1

6.63

Ex 4: Finding the inverse of a linear transformation

The linear transformation T : R 3 R 3 is defined by
T ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) (2 x1 3 x2 x3 , 3 x1 3 x2 x3 , 2 x1 4 x2 x3 )

Show that T is invertible, and find its inverse

Sol:
The standard matrix for T
2 3 1
A 3 3 1
2 4 1

2 x1 3 x2 x3
3x1 3 x2 x3
2 x1 4 x2 x3

2 3 1 1 0 0
A I 3 3 3 1 0 1 0

2
4
1
0
0
1

6.64


G.-J. E.

1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0 1

0 0 1 6 2 3

A1

Therefore T is invertible and the standard matrix for T 1 is A1

0
1 1
A1 1 0
1

0
1 1
T 1 ( v ) A1 v 1 0
1

In other word s,

x1 x2
x1
x2
x1 x3

x
6
x

2
x

3
x
2
3
3 1

T 1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 ) ( x1 x2 , x1 x3 , 6 x1 2 x2 3x3 )
Check T-1(T(2, 3, 4)) = T-1(17, 19, 20) = (2, 3, 4)

6.65

The matrix of T relative to the bases B and B:

T :V W

(a linear transformation)

B {v1 , v 2 ,L , v n }

(a nonstandard basis for V )

The coordinate matrix of any v relative to B is denoted by [v]B

c1
c
if v can be represeted as c1 v1 c2 v 2 L cn v n , then [v]B 2
M

cn

A matrix A can represent T if the result of A multiplied by a

coordinate matrix of v relative to B is a coordinate matrix of v
relative to B, where B is a basis for W. That is,

T ( v) B ' A[ v]B ,
where A is called the matrix of T relative to the bases B and B (T
B B' )
6.66

Transformation matrix for nonstandard bases (the generalizat

ion of Theorem 6.10, in which standard bases are considered)
:
Let V and W be finite - dimensional vector spaces with bases B and B ',
respectively, where B {v1 , v 2 ,L , v n }
If T : V W is a linear transformation s.t.

T ( v1 ) B '

a11
a
21 ,
M

am1

T ( v 2 ) B '

a 12
a
22 ,L ,

M

a m 2

a1n
a
2n

T ( v n ) B '

amn

then the m n matrix who se n columns correspond to T (vi ) B '

6.67

A [T ( v1 )]B [T ( v 2 )]B L [T ( v n )]B

a11 a12
a
a22
21

M M

am1 am 2

L
L
O
L

a1n
a2 n
M

amn

is such that T ( v) B ' A[ v]B for every v in V

The above result state that the coordinate of T(v) relative to the basis
B equals the multiplication of A defined above and the coordinate of
v relative to the basis B.
Comparing to the result in Thm. 6.10 (T(v) = Av), it can infer that the
linear transformation and the basis change can be achieved in one step
through multiplying the matrix A defined above (see the figure on
6.74 for illustration)
6.68

Ex 5: Finding a matrix relative to nonstandard bases

Let T : R 2 R 2 be a linear transformation defined by
T ( x1 , x2 ) ( x1 x2 , 2 x1 x2 )

Find the matrix of T relative to the basis B {(1, 2), ( 1, 1)}

and B ' {(1, 0), (0, 1)}

Sol:
T (1, 2) (3, 0) 3(1, 0) 0(0, 1)
T ( 1, 1) (0, 3) 0(1, 0) 3(0, 1)
T (1, 2) B ' 03 , T (1, 1) B ' 03

the matrix for T relative to B and B '

3 0
A T (1, 2) B ' T (1, 2) B '
0 3

6.69

Ex 6:
For the L.T. T : R 2 R 2 given in Example 5, use the matrix A
to find T ( v), where v (2, 1)
Sol:
v (2, 1) 1(1, 2) 1(1, 1)
B {(1, 2), (1, 1)}
1
v B
1
3 0 1 3
T ( v ) B ' A v B

0 3 1 3
T ( v ) 3(1, 0) 3(0, 1) (3, 3)
B' {(1, 0), (0, 1)}

Check:
T (2, 1) (2 1, 2(2) 1) (3, 3)
6.70

Notes:
(1) In the special case where V W (i.e., T : V V ) and B B ',
the matrix A is called the matrix of T relative to the basis B
(T
B
)
(2) If T : V V is the identity transformation
B {v1 , v 2 ,L , v n }: a basis for V
the matrix of T relative to the basis B
A T ( v1 ) B T ( v 2 ) B L

T ( v n ) B

1 0 L
0 1 L

M M O
0 0 L

0
0
In

1
6.71

Keywords in Section 6.3:

standard matrix for T: T

composition of linear transformations:

inverse linear transformation:

matrix of T relative to the bases B and B' : T B

B'
matrix of T relative to the basis B: T B

6.72

6.4 Transition Matrices and Similarity

T :V V
B {v1 , v 2 ,L , v n }

( a linear transformation)
( a basis of V )

B ' {w1 , w 2 ,L , w n } (a basis of V )

A T ( v1 ) B T ( v 2 ) B L

T ( v n ) B

A ' T ( w1 ) B ' T (w 2 ) B ' L

( matrix of T relative to B)
(T B )

T (w n ) B '

(matrix of T relative to B ')

(T B )

T ( v ) B A v B , and T ( v) B ' A v B '

P w1 B
P v1 B '
1

w2 B
v2 B '

L
L

w n B
v n B '

( transition matrix from B ' to B )

( B' B )

( transition matrix from B to B ')

( B B )

from the definition of the transition matrix on p.254 in the

text book or on Slide 4.108 and 4.109 in the lecture notes

v B P v B ' , and v B ' P 1 v B

6.73

Two ways to get from v B ' to T ( v ) B ' :

(1) (direct) : A '[ v]B ' [T ( v)]B '
(2) (indirect) : P 1 AP[ v]B ' [T ( v)]B ' A ' P 1 AP

indirect

direct

6.74

Ex 1: (Finding a matrix for a linear transformation)

Find the matrix A' for TR 2 R 2
T ( x1 , x2 ) (2 x1 2 x2 , x1 3 x2 )
reletive to the basis B ' {(1, 0), (1, 1)}

Sol:
(1) A ' T (1, 0) B '

T (1, 1) B '

3
T (1, 0) (2, 1) 3(1, 0) 1(1, 1) T (1, 0) B '
1
2
T (1, 1) (0, 2) 2(1, 0) 2(1, 1) T (1, 1) B '
2
3 2
A' T (1, 0) B ' T (1, 1) B '
1 2

6.75

(2) standard matrix for T (matrix of T relative to B {(1, 0), (0, 1)})

2 2
A T (1, 0) T (0, 1)
1 3
transition matrix from B ' to B
1 1
P (1, 0) B (1, 1) B

0
1

transition matrix from B to B '

P (1, 0) B '
1

(0, 1) B '

matrix of T relative B '

Solve a(1, 0) + b(0, 1) = (1, 0)

(a, b) = (1, 0)
Solve c(1, 0) + d(0, 1) = (1, 1)
(c, d) = (1, 1)

1 1

0
1

Solve a(1, 0) + b(1, 1) = (1, 0)

(a, b) = (1, 0)
Solve c(1, 0) + d(1, 1) = (0, 1)
(c, d) = (-1, 1)

1 1 2 2 1 1 3 2
A' P AP

0
1

1
3
0
1

1
2

6.76

Ex 2: (Finding a matrix for a linear transformation)

Let B {( 3, 2), (4, 2)} and B ' {( 1, 2), (2, 2)} be basis for
2 7
2
2
R , and let A
be
the
matrix
for
T
:
R

R
relative to B.

3 7
Find the matrix of T relative to B '
2

Sol:
Because the specific function is unknown, it is difficult to apply
the direct method to derive A, so we resort to the indirect
method where A = P-1AP
3 2
transition matrix from B ' to B : P (1, 2) B (2, 2) B

1
1
transition matrix from B to B ': P (3, 2) B ' (4, 2) B '
2

matrix of T relative to B ':

1 2 2 7 3 2 2 1
1
A' P AP

2 3 3 7 2 1 1 3

2
3

6.77

Ex 3: (Finding a matrix for a linear transformation)

For the linear transformation T : R 2 R 2 given in Ex.2, find v B ,

T ( v) B , and T ( v) B ' , for the vector v whose coordinate matrix is

Sol:

v B'

3

1

3 2 3 7
v B P v B ' 2 1 1 5

2 7 7 21
T ( v) B A v B 3 7 5 14

1 2 21 7
1
T ( v) B ' P T ( v) B 2 3 14 0

2 1 3 7
or T ( v ) B ' A' v B '

1
3

1
0

6.78

Similar matrix ( ):
For square matrices A and A of order n, A is said to be similar
to A if there exist an invertible matrix P s.t. A=P-1AP
Theorem 6.13: (Properties of similar matrices)
Let A, B, and C be square matrices of order n.
Then the following properties are true.
(1) A is similar to A
(2) If A is similar to B, then B is similar to A
(3) If A is similar to B and B is similar to C, then A is similar to C
Pf for (1) and (2) (the proof of (3) is left in Exercise 23):
(1) A I n AI n (the transition matrix from A to A is the I n )
(2) A P 1 BP PAP 1 P( P 1BP ) P 1 PAP 1 B
Q 1 AQ B (by defining Q P 1 ), thus B is similar to A

6.79

Ex 4: (Similar matrices)
2 2
3
(a) A
and A '

1
3

2
2 are similar

1 1
1
because A' P AP, where P

0
1

2 7
2 1
(b) A
and A '
are similar

3 7
1 3
3 2
because A' P AP, where P

6.80

Ex 5: (A comparison of two matrices for a linear transformation)

1 3 0
Suppose A 3 1 0 is the matrix for T : R 3 R 3 relative
0 0 2
to the standard basis. Find the matrix for T relative to the basis
B ' {(1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}

Sol:
The transitio n matrix from B' to the standard matrix
P (1, 1, 0) B
P 1

1
2
1
2

(1, 1, 0) B
1
2

12

0 0

0
0

1 1 0
(0, 0, 1) B 1 1 0
0 0 1
6.81

matrix of T relative to B ' :

A ' P 1 AP

1
2
1
2

1
2

0
0
1

1 3 0
3 1 0

0 0 2

1 0
1 1 0
0 0 1
1

12
0 0
0
4 0
(A is a diagonal matrix, which is

0 2 0
simple and with some
computational advantages)
0 0 2

You have seen that the standard matrix for a linear

transformation T:V V depends on the basis used for V.
What choice of basis will make the standard matrix for T as
simple as possible? This case shows that it is not always
the standard basis.

6.82

Notes: Diagonal matrices have many computational advantages o

ver nondiagonal ones (it will be used in the next chapter)
for D

d1k 0

k
0
d
2
(1) D k
M M

0 0

1
d1

L
L
O
L

0 L

1
0 d2 L
(3) D
M M O
0 0 L

0
M
k
d n

d1
0

0 L
d2 L

M M O

0 0 L

0
M , d i 0

1
d n

0
0

d n
(2) DT D

6.83

Keywords in Section 6.4:

matrix of T relative to B: T B

matrix of T relative to B' : T B'

transition matrix from B' to B : B' B

transition matrix from B to B' : B B'

similar matrix:

6.84

6.5 Applications of Linear Transformation

The geometry of linear transformation in the plane (p.407-p.110)

Reflection in x-axis, y-axis, and y=x
Horizontal and vertical expansion and contraction
Horizontal and vertical shear
Computer graphics (to produce any desired angle of view of a 3D figure)

6.85