IP Addressing

(IPv4 ADDRESSES)

IP Addressing
Universal
Service
Concept
Any computer can communicate with any other computer in
the world.
Multiple independently owned and operated networks can be
interconnected to provide universal service.
Internetworking

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Network Identifiers

Computers on the Internet are referred to as hosts. Each

host as at least three identifiers:

Internet name for humans to use (i.e. garfield.ncat.edu)

Internet address, a 32 bit binary number written in decimal
as four bytes (i.e.152.8.240.16)
hardware address, such as an Ethernet address (i.e. 00-e0-6303-76-c0 for garfield)

Internet Names

Hierarchical starting from the right

host.subnet.organization.type
Rightmost identifies the type or organization or
country

edu, com, mil, org, net

us, ca, de, uk

Internet Architecture

An internet consists of a set of networks interconnected by

routers. The internet scheme allows each organization to choose
the number and type of networks, the number of routers to use
to interconnect them, and the exact interconnection topology

Virtual Network

The Internet is a virtual network.

the communication system is an abstraction.

It provides the illusion of a seamless network where:

Each computer is assigned an address.

Any computer can send a packet to any other computer.
Internet protocol software hides the details of the network.
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Internet Protocol

To achieve universal service among all computers on

an internet, routers must agree to forward information
from a source on one network to a destination on
another.
A common protocol is needed on computers and
routers to overcome the differing frame formats and
addressing schemes used within each network.
Because each network uses an different and
incompatible addressing system, an independent
addressing system is needed.

IPv4 ADDRESSES

An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and

universally defines the connection of a device (for
example, a computer or a router) to the Internet.

The address space of IPv4 is

232 or 4,294,967,296.

IP Addresses

To be able to identify a host on the internet, each host is

assigned an address, the IP address, or Internet Address.
The standards for IP addresses are described in RFC 1166
-- Internet Numbers.
When the host is attached to more than one network, it is
called multi-homed and it has one IP address for each
network interface.
An IP Address is a 32 bit binary number.
IP addresses are used by the IP protocol to uniquely
identify a host on the internet.

The Dotted Decimal Notation

IP addresses are usually represented in a dotted decimal form).

IP address is made of four groups of decimal numbers between
0 - 255 separated by dots.
Some of the numbers are special (like 0.0.0.0 or
255.255.255.255) and are used to designate the default
gateway, a broadcast or multicast address, or some reserved
numbers for the developers to play with

Parts of an IP Address

A part of the address designates the network numbers, and the

remaining part designates the host number. So, we may say an
IP address has the format NETWORK.HOST.
The network number part of the IP address is centrally
administered by the Internet Network Information Centre (the
InterNIC) and is unique throughout the Internet.
The IP address consists of a pair of numbers:
IP address = <network number><host number>

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Network Number Assignment

One point to note about the split of an IP address into

two parts is that this split also splits the responsibility
for selecting the IP address into two parts. The
network number is assigned by the InterNIC, and the
host number by the authority which controls the
network.
The host number can be further subdivided: this
division is controlled by the authority which owns the
network, and not by the InterNIC.

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Example 19.1
Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary
notation to dotted-decimal notation.

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent
decimal number (see Appendix B) and add dots for
separation.

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Example 19.2
Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal
notation to binary notation.

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary
equivalent (see Appendix B).

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Example 19.3
Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

Solution
a. There must be no leading zero (045).
b. There can be no more than four numbers.
c. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255.
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal
notation is not allowed.
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IP Address Classes

Traditionally, the conventions are that there are three

main types of IP networks.

Class A
Class B
Class C
There are also:
Class D
Class E

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Assigned Classes of Internet

Addresses
The first bits of the IP address specify how the rest of the address

should be separated into its network and host part.

The terms network address and netID are sometimes used
instead of network number, but the formal term, used in RFC
1166, is network number. Similarly, the terms host address and
hostID are sometimes used instead of host number.

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Address Ranges and Network

Prefix
Class A addresses use 7 bits for the network number giving 126 possible

networks (out of every group of network and host numbers, two have a
special meaning). The remaining 24 bits are used for the host number, so
each networks can have up to 224 - minus 2 (16,777,214) hosts.
Class B addresses use 14 bits for the network number, and 16 bits for the
host number giving 16,382 Class B networks each with a maximum of
65534 hosts.
Class C only 254 hosts (all 0 and 1 combinations are not allowed). 21 bits
for the network number and 8 for the host number giving 2,097,150
networks each with up to 254 hosts.

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Other Address Classes

There is also a Class D address (starts with 1110)

used for multicasting, which is used to address groups
of hosts in a limited area.
Class E addresses are reserved for future use. Class E
(1111) addresses are reserved for the nerds.

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Special Addresses

IP Address Notation
{<network>, <host>}
{<network>, <subnet>, <host>}
-1 value means a component consisting of all 1s
{0,0} = This host on this network
{0,<host>} = Specific host on this network
{-1, -1} = Local broadcast
Broadcast to all hosts on this network
{<network>, -1} = Directed broadcast
Broadcast to all hosts on <network>

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Special Addresses Cont.

{<network>, <subnet>, -1} = Directed broadcast

Broadcast to all hosts on <subnet> of <network>
{<network>, -1, -1} = Directed broadcast
Broadcast to all hosts on all subnets of <network>
{<127>, <any>} = Loopback address
Packet never leaves the NIC
Should never appear on the network

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Example 19.4
Find the class of each address.
a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111
Solution
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C
address.
c. The first byte is 14; the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252; the class is E.
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In classful addressing, a large part of the

available addresses were wasted.
Classful addressing, which is almost obsolete,
is replaced with classless addressing.
Table 19.2 Default masks for classful addressing

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Example 19.5
Figure 19.3 shows a block of addresses, in both binary
and dotted-decimal notation, granted to a small business
that needs 16 addresses.
We can see that the restrictions are applied to this block.
The addresses are contiguous. The number of addresses
is a power of 2 (16 = 24), and the first address is divisible
by 16. The first address, when converted to a decimal
number, is 3,440,387,360, which when divided by 16
results in 215,024,210.

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Figure 19.3 A block of 16 addresses granted to a small organization

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In IPv4 addressing, a block of addresses can be defined

as x.y.z.t /n in which x.y.z.t defines one of the addresses
and the /n defines the mask.
The first address in the block can be found by setting
the rightmost 32 n bits to 0s.
The last address in the block can be found by setting
the rightmost 32 n bits to 1s.
The number of addresses in the block can be found
by using the formula 232n.
The first address in a block is normally not assigned
to any device; it is used as the network address that
represents the organization to the rest of the world.
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IP Address Space Shortage

It is clear that a class A address will only be assigned to

networks with a huge number of hosts, and that class C
addresses are suitable for networks with a small number of
hosts. However, this means that medium-sized networks
(those with more than 254 hosts or where there is an
expectation that there may be more than 254 hosts in the
future) must use Class B addresses. The number of small- to
medium-sized networks has been growing very rapidly in
the last few years and it was feared that, if this growth had
been allowed to continue unabated, all of the available Class
B network addresses would have been used by the mid1990s. This is termed the IP Address Exhaustion problem.
The problem and how it is being addressed are discussed in
The IP Address Exhaustion Problem.
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IPv4 - Problems

The decision to standardize on a 32 bit address space

meant that there were only 232 (4,294,967,296) IPv4
addresses available.
During the early days of the Internet, the seemingly
unlimited address space allowed IP addresses to be
allocated based on requests rather than its actual need.
The class A, B, and C octet boundaries were easy to
understand and implement, but they did not foster
efficient allocation of addresses.
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IPv4 - Problems

Class C, which supports 254 hosts, is too small.

Class B, which supports 65534 hosts is too large.
In the past, sites with several hundred hosts have been
assigned as single Class B address rather than couple
of Class C addresses.
Unfortunately, this has resulted in a premature
depletion of the Class B network address space.

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Private Internets

Another approach to conservation of the IP address space is

described in RFC 1597 - Address Allocation for Private
Internets.

Briefly, it relaxes the rule that IP addresses are globally unique by

reserving part of the address space for networks which are used
exclusively within a single organization and which do not require IP
connectivity to the Internet. There are three ranges of addresses which
have been reserved by IANA for this purpose:

10.0.0.0 A single Class A network

172.16 through 172.31 16 contiguous Class B networks
192.168.0 through 192.168.255 256 contiguous Class C
networks
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Private Internets

Any organization may use any addresses in these ranges

without reference to any other organization. However

because these addresses are not globally unique, they cannot be

referenced by hosts in another organization and they are not defined to
any external routers.

Routers in networks not using private addresses, particularly

those operated by Internet service providers, are expected to
quietly discard all routing information regarding these
addresses.
Routers in an organization using private addresses are expected
to limit all references to private addresses to internal links;
they should neither advertise routes to private addresses to
external routers nor forward IP datagrams containing private
addresses to via external routers.
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Subnetting

Subnetting Why?

Internet routing tables were beginning to grow.

Local administrators had to request another network
number from the Internet before a new network could be
installed at their site.

In 1985, RFC 950 defined a standard procedure to

support the subnetting, or division, of a single Class
A, B, or C network number into smaller pieces.

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Subnets and Subnet Masks

Allow arbitrary complexity of internetworked LANs within

organization
Insulate overall internet from growth of network numbers and
routing complexity
Site looks to rest of internet like single network
Each LAN assigned subnet number
Host portion of address partitioned into subnet number and
host number
Local routers route within subnetted network
Subnet mask indicates which bits are subnet number and
which are host number
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Routing Using Subnets

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Subnetting

Subnetting attacked the

expanding routing table
problem by ensuring that:

the subnet structure of a

network is never visible
outside of the organization's
private network.
The route from the Internet to
any subnet of a given IP
address is the same, no matter
which subnet the destination
host is on. How?

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Subnetting

Advantages

The size of the global

Internet routing table
does not grow
The local administrator
has the flexibility to
deploy additional subnets
Route flapping (i.e., the
rapid changing of routes)
within the private network
does not affect the
Internet routing table
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Extended-Network-Prefix

Internet routers use only the network-prefix of the destination

address to route traffic to a subnetted environment. Routers
within the subnetted environment use the extended networkprefix to route traffic between the individual subnets.
The extended-network prefix is composed of the classful
network-prefix and the subnet-number.
The extended-network-prefix has traditionally been identified
by the subnet mask.

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Extended-Network-Prefix and
Subnet
Mask

if you have the /16 address of 130.5.0.0 and you want to use the
entire third octet to represent the subnet-number, you need to
specify a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0.
The bits in the subnet mask and the Internet address have a oneto-one correspondence.

The bits of the subnet mask are set to 1 if the system examining the
address should treat the corresponding bit in the IP address as part of the
extended-network-prefix.
The bits in the mask are set to 0 if the system should treat the bit as part of
the host-number.

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Subnet Design Considerations

The deployment of an addressing plan requires careful
thought on the part of the network administrator.
There are four key questions that must be answered
before any design should be undertaken:

1.
2.
3.

4.

How many total subnets does the organization need today?

How many total subnets will the organization need in the future?
How many hosts are there on the organization's largest subnet
today?
How many hosts will there be on the organization's largest
subnet in the future?

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Extended-Network-Prefix and
Subnet Mask

The standards describing modern routing protocols often refer to

the extended-networkprefix-length rather than the subnet mask.
The prefix length is equal to the number of contiguous one-bits in
the traditional subnet mask. This means that specifying the
network address 130.5.5.25 with a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0
can also be expressed as 130.5.5.25/24.

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Subnet Example #1

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Subnet Example #1

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Defining Host Addresses for Each

Subnet
According to Internet practices, the host-number field of an IP address

cannot contain all 0-bits or all 1-bits.

The all-0s host-number identifies the base network (or subnetwork)
number, while the all-1s host-number represents the broadcast address for
the network (or subnetwork).

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Defining the Broadcast Address for

Each Subnet
This is always the case - the broadcast address for Subnet #n is one less than
the base address for Subnet #(n+1).

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IP Configuration Parameters

IP Address

Subnet Mask

Identifies the computer/host

Either assigned/configured statically by the administrator or
May be assigned dynamically through DHCP
32 bit integer, like the IP address
Indicates the size of the subnet
Used to generate Network Address
IP address and Subnet Mask are logically ANDed to produce the
Network ID of the source and detination

Default Gateway

The Way Out of the Subnet

Router
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IP Configuration Parameters

DNS Server

On the Internet, the domain name system (DNS) stores and associates
many types of information with domain names; most importantly, it
translates domain names (computer hostnames) to IP addresses.

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How IP Operates at a Host

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N E T W O R K 2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .0

2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .1 1

2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .1 8
2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .1 0
2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .2 2

2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .1 2

S u bn e tw o rk
2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .8

E0
2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .9

R o u te r

S u bn e tw o rk
E1
2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .1 6
2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .1 7
2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .2 0

2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .1 3

2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .1 4

R o u t in g T a
2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .8
2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .1
2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .2
2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .3

b le
6
4
2

E0
E1
E2
E3

2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .1 9
2 0 1 .2 2 2 .5 .2 1

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