TRAFFIC

ENGINEERING

Source: ETH (Institute for Transport Planning and Systems), Zurich

Possible Areas of Research in TE

Develop models to better replicate real traffic conditions
Improve understanding of traffic phenomena
Contribute to a better definition of the role of cars in cities, while
assessing their external costs and impacts
Understand and quantify how different technologies and
management strategies influence the performance of transportation
systems
Develop innovative solutions to improve traffic performance and
reduce congestion both in highways and urban networks
Identify new and efficient methods for using in-vehicle and
infrastructure technologies to improve traffic conditions
Optimize the operations of transportation systems from a multi-modal
perspective

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Traffic Characteristics
Traffic Studies and Analysis
Traffic Operations
Planning and Analysis
Geometric Design
Administration and Management

TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS

It consists of
1. Human Element
2. Vehicular Element

TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
ROAD USER CHARACTERISTICS
PHYSICAL: Vision, Hearing, Reaction to different traffic situations, Strength
MENTAL: Knowledge (of Vehicle characteristics), Skill, Intelligence, Experience,
Literacy (w.r.t. Traffic Rules as well as general Literacy)
PSYCHOLOGICAL: Affect the reactions to the reaction to traffic situations
Reactions to distractions, drivers mental status, Emotions
(Attentiveness, anger, fear, impatience, general attitude
towards Traffic Rules & Regulations) and Maturity of Drivers
ENVIRONMENTAL: Traffic stream Characteristics, Lack of Facilities (like design
of overtaking zones, uneven surface, etc.),
Motivation/Reason for coming/going (in a hurry, casual, etc.)

TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
VEHICULAR CHARACTERISTICS:
The criterion for Road Design is to cater for the needs of existing and
anticipated (forecasted) traffic. So, the Vehicular Standards should preferably be
similar throughout a country (big region), so as to provide ease of Planning and
Design of Highway Networks.

TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
VEHICULAR CHARACTERISTICS: STATIC

TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
VEHICULAR CHARACTERISTICS: STATIC
WEIGHT OF LOADED VEHICLE:
Affects pavement thickness and gradient.
(though Limiting Gradients are governed by weight and
power of the
vehicle)
Max Gross Weight: 12 tonnes (both axle single tyre trucks)
TRUCK/TRACTOR

TRAILER

52.2 tonnes (tractor trailer type 3-3)

Max Weight on Front Axle 6 9 tonnes
(FAW)(6+18+10.2+18= 52.2
Max Weight on Rear Axle
(RAW)

6 18 tonnes

10.2 tonnes (Type 2-2 and

tonnes)
above)

10.2 18 tonnes

TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
VEHICULAR CHARACTERISTICS: DYNAMIC
POWER OF VEHICLES:
Total Hauling Capacity and Power required to overcome total
tractive resistance are used for the determination of Speed and
Acceleration
This is useful for Traffic Regulation, Planning and Design
*Total resistance to traction consists of Inertia, Rolling Resistance,
Air Resistance and Grade Resistance.

TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
VEHICULAR CHARACTERISTICS: DYNAMIC
SPEED OF VEHICLE:
It affects the design of
a. Sight Distances
b. Superelevation, Length of Transition Curves and Limiting
Radius on Horizontal Curves
c. Length of Transition Curves on Vertical Curves
d. Width of pavements and shoulders
e. Design Gradient
f. Capacity of Traffic Lane
g. Design and Control Measures on Intersections

TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
VEHICULAR CHARACTERISTICS: DYNAMIC
BRAKING CHARACTERISTICS:
Depend on design and type of braking system (Mechanical, Fluid or
Air Brake) and its efficiency.
Affects the safety of vehicle operations, stopping distances, spacing
between two consecutive vehicles.
Thus, Highway Capacity and Overtaking Sight Distances are also
indirectly affected.

TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
VEHICULAR CHARACTERISTICS: DYNAMIC
BRAKING CHARACTERISTICS:
Braking Test
Measurement of Skid Resistance under prevailing conditions
(type of pavement and the desired speed of vehicle).
Assumptions:
After application of brakes and till the vehicle comes to a stop
- Wheels are fully locked, and
- Brake Efficiency is 100%.

TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS

VEHICULAR
CHARACTERISTICS: DYNAMIC
BRAKING CHARACTERISTICS:
Measurements required in the Braking Test:
a. Braking Distance (L),
b. Initial Speed (u), and
c. Actual Duration of brake application (t).
Skid Resistance (f), f =
m/}

or

f = {a = Retardation, g = 9.81

Actual Skid Resistance, f = f {= Brake Efficiency}

TRAFFIC STUDIES
DEFINITIONS:
Traffic Volume: Number of vehicles passing a point or cross section in a given
time period.
Traffic Density: Number of vehicles (in a lane) occupying a unit length of lane at
a given instant of time.
Rate of Flow: Number of vehicles/persons passing a point in a specified time
expressed as an equivalent hourly rate (strictly specified as an hourly rate by
convention, conversion to hourly rate is necessary for expressing rate of flow).
Demand: Number of vehicles desired to travel past a point in a lane.
Capacity: Maximum rate that is achieved in a short span or point during a time
period.
Traffic Volume = (Traffic Density) x (Traffic Speed)

TRAFFIC STUDIES
The following fall under the umbrella of Traffic Studies:
Traffic Volume Studies
Speed Studies
Origin and Destination Studies
Traffic Flow Characteristics
Traffic Capacity
Parking Studies
Accident Studies

TRAFFIC STUDIES

MID BLOCK

INTERSECTION

Mid Block Counts

and
Intersection Counts
are done separately
MID BLOCK

TRAFFIC STUDIES
Period of Traffic Volume Studies: Depends on purpose of study
Time and cost constraints usually demand use of simpler methods of
traffic studies.
Normally used traffic volume study periods: Peak Hour times (Morning or
Evening), 12 Hour, 16 Hour, 24 Hour and 7 days.
Common counting periods for Mid Block Counts:

1 minute, 5 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 hour (usually 5 minutes and

15 minutes durations are preferred). Normally very small
counting periods are not desired as they would result in more
error in extrapolating the study for a larger data set.
Common counting periods for Signalized Intersection Counts:

Duration in multiples of cycle length.

TRAFFIC STUDIES
Data to be collected:
Occupancy Data,
Turning Moment data,
Make or type of vehicles.
Challenges in the process:
Lack of co-ordination among team members,
Accuracy in information and Data Recording, and
Organization of data.
Fixed FEILD DATA SHEETS in fixed format are used.

TRAFFIC STUDIES
Planning of Traffic Volume Study:
Field Sheets should be planned and designed precisely and with clarity.

- Day Date, Time, Location, Turning Moment, Vehicle Type, etc.

- Counting Period (Duration), Total Period (example: 15 min duration
for an 8 hour study)
- Climatic conditions
Personnel should be properly trained

- How and where to use the equipment,

- Vehicle types
- Purpose of study
Avoid too many enumerators at one place, so as not to disturb the drivers. Aim of
study is to get normal data.

TRAFFIC STUDIES
Planning of Traffic Volume Study:

cont

Choose task distribution, number of personnel, shift change, etc.

Data recording should be feasible as per human capabilities
Supervisors should be present on the site
For ease of team, Mechanical Counters, Pneumatic Counters can be used.
Pros and cons of both human and mechanical counting techniques should
be known and considered.
Breaks, whenever taken, should be properly recorded in the Data Sheet and
suitable extrapolation of data for a continuous trend of traffic movement and
volume should be done properly.

RA FI

PE TIONS

It includes Laws and Ordinances, Traffic Regulatory Measures

(e.g. speed limits) and traffic control devices.

RA FI

PE TIONS

RA FI

PE TIONS

DRIVER CONTROLS
Includes Licences, driving tests, financial responsibility (in case of an
accident), civil liability (citizens should follow traffic rules)
VEHICLE CONTROLS
Vehicle registration, vehicle requirements, necessary equipment and
accessories, maximum dimensions and weight for loaded vehicles
(trucks), fitness of vehicles (engine, brakes in proper condition, etc.)
FLOW REGULATIONS
Regulations for turning, overtaking, etc. Regulatory signs like one-way,
pedestrian control, speed limits, etc.
GENERAL CONTROLS
Laws in case of accidents, violation of traffic rules (Indian Motor Vehicle Act,

RA FI

PE TIONS

CONFLICTS on a road Intersection

RA FI

PE TIONS

TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

These control, regulate and guide traffic.
Requirements of Traffic Control Devices
Should attract ATTENTION
Should be MEANINGFUL
There should be enough Time To Respond to those signs
Types of Traffic Control Devices
SIGNS
SIGNALS
MARKINGS
ISLANDS

RA FI

PE TIONS

TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

SIGNS

RA FI

PE TIONS

TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

TRAFFIC SIGNALS
The crossing streams of traffic are separated by TIME &
SEGREGATION.
Alternatively direct traffic to stop and proceed at intersections using
Red, Amber and Green lights.
Requirements:
Draw attention
Provide meaning
Time to respond
Minimum wastage of time

Factors for planning traffic signals

Volume of traffic entering the intersection
Crossing Movements

RA FI

PE TIONS

TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

MARKINGS
Lines, patterns, words, symbols or reflectors on the pavements, kerbs, sides of
islands or surrounding fixed objects within or near the roadway.
They intend to control, warn, guide or regulate the traffic.
Their dimensions, colour, contrasts and brightness should be such that they are
easily seen/identified by the road users.
They should be installed or placed at places such that the road users have
enough time to react to and follow them.
NOTE:
Refer the PPT made by Roll Numbers 11 to 20 for road markings. It is a part of
your reading material.

RA FI

PE TIONS

TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

The four types of markings are
Pavement Markings
White or yellow lines on roads for division, flow directions like Centre line, lane
lines, stop lines, No Passing zone markings, etc.
Object Markings
Markings on Physical Obstructions lying in and near to the traffic flow, like
supports for bridges, level crossing gates, traffic islands, narrow bridges, signs
and signals, etc.
Kerb Markings
Markings on kerbs and edges of islands, etc.
Reflector Unit Markings
Used as hazard markers and for facilitating night visibility. Visible from a very
large distance

RA FI

PE TIONS

TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

TRAFFIC ISLANDS
They are raised areas constructed within the roadway to act as a
physical channel through which the vehicular traffic my be guided.
They are classified as
Divisional Islands (Dividers on roads- facilitate one way traffic)
Channelizing Islands (at intersections- circular roundabouts, etc)
Pedestrian Loading Islands (on bus stops (not bus stands))
Rotary

Divisional
Islands

The kerb markings are

also shown here
Black & White Strips
Black & Yellow Strips

Channelizing
Islands

Pedestrian Loading
Islands

PLANNING, ANALYSIS & DESIGN

INTERSECTIONS

Intersections are the areas where two or more continuous lanes cross
each other.
Therefore, they act as areas where traffic streams merge, diverge and
cross each other.
The probability of accidents are very high on intersections. Both
Vehicle-Vehicle conflicts as well as Vehicle-Pedestrian conflicts.
The factors to be considered in design of intersections are:
Relative Speed (depend on magnitude of velocity of vehicles as well
as the angle between the lines of movement of the vehicles)
Manoeuvre Areas (areas in traffic flow where two or more traffic

PLANNING, ANALYSIS & DESIGN

INTERSECTIONS
Kindly refer Pics
circulated on Whats
App & e-mails for
Intersections

Or see Fig. 5.34, 5.35,

5.36, 5.37, and 5.39 in
Khanna & Justo

PLANNING, ANALYSIS & DESIGN

PARKING FACILITIES

Increase in the number of vehicles as well as infrastructure

(offices, shopping arcades, malls, etc.)
Absence of proper parking facilities and improper mindset of
people results in faulty parking practices which results in
congestion, decreased road capacity and increased
probability of accidents

PLANNING, ANALYSIS & DESIGN

PARKING FACILITIES
PARKING DEMAND
The number of vehicles which park at or near to a certain location either
from morning to evening or for some period of time is parking demand for
that area/location.
Methods to compute parking demand
Record the number of vehicles in peak hour duration
Parking Demand = Volume of Traffic Entering Volume of Traffic leaving the area
(used if parking demand is more than space available)
Count number of vehicles parked at that location w.r.t. time and duration
The count should include number of vehicles parked at different times of the day
along with the duration for which they were parked
Interview people in that area about the parking requirements and parking problems

PLANNING, ANALYSIS & DESIGN

PARKING FACILITIES

PARKING CHARACTERISTICS
Study of current parking practices and general problems related to parking.
Parking patterns (parallel or angle parking) is very important for kerb parking
as it interferes with smooth flow of traffic as well as increases the risk of
accidents and also decreases the capacity of the road.
PARKING SPACE INVENTORY
Using the data of parking surveys, a map is prepared for planning places
suitable for kerb parking (along with the parking pattern), for off street parking.
Balance between Traffic Capacity & Parking Demand is important and
necessary for especially metropolitan cities.

PLANNING, ANALYSIS & DESIGN

PARKING FACILITIES

ON STREET PARKING
Parallel parking and Angle parking are decided as per the space
requirements available.
Where the length of parking lot is more, parallel parking is preferred.
But, if length is not very much, then Angle Parking is preferred. 30
Parking is good when Width is less and Length is ok. 60 Parking is
good when Width is ok and Length is relatively less (but, length is more
than the width always, length over here means that it is compared to
the requirement).
45 Parking is optimal from both Length and Width point of view.
Refer Fig. 5.40

PLANNING, ANALYSIS & DESIGN

PARKING FACILITIES

OFF STREET PARKING

Read about OFF STREET Parking from book.
Its provided where space is available at lower costs.
That is why parking lots are in the basement or nowadays the multistoreyed parking lots are becoming popular due to less availability of
land.
Types of Parking Lots: Self Parking and Attendant Parking (read them
from the book)
Operations in a parking lot
Entrance

Acceptance

Storage

Delivery

Exit

PLANNING, ANALYSIS & DESIGN

TRAFFIC & TRANSPORTATION PLANNING
Population Growth
Changes in India
over the past decade

Traffic Growth

Require Improvement
In Traffic Facilities

National Productivity
Growth

Problems

Traffic
Congestion
Accidents

Causes

Improper
Planning of
Road Networks
and
Roadway
Poor Traffic
Facilities
Planning

PLANNING, ANALYSIS & DESIGN

TRAFFIC & TRANSPORTATION PLANNING

 Read/Self Analyse about jobs Divisions of Traffic

Engineering units (Field Studies, Accident Analysis, Traffic
Control Devices, Design & Planning, Special Investigation,
Economic Analysis & Decision Theory in Engg Design and
Administration)
Kindly read the topics of slide 41 from book in detail
Also read about Highway Lighting from book