Introduction to

Electrical
Machines
Erkan Mee

Coulombs Law

Remember

Like charges repel one another

Opposite charges attract one
another
The force of repulsion/attraction get
weaker as the charges are farther
apart.

Charges and Forces

Qa

Qb

Fa

Fb

Fa =-QaQb

Fb =+QbQa

4r2
In air8.85 x 10-12 Fm-1
|| = 1, Fa = -Fb

4r2

Unit vector r?

1 unit

4
2

These are all unit vectors, |i| = 1

They have a direction, and a magnitude of 1
adds direction to a quantity without changing its magnitude
e.g.... speed = 100m/s is a speed S
100(1/2, 1/2, 0)m/s is a velocity v =S , 100m/s, North-East ()
= (1/2, 1/2, 0) in this case.

Charges and Fields

Fa =-QaQb

Fb =+QbQa

4r2
Fa =+QaEb

4r2
Fb =+QbEa

Where Eb =-Qb

Where Ea = +Qa
4r2

4r2
Eb(r)

is the electric field set

Ea(r) is the electric field se

up by charge b at distance rup by charge a at distance r

(point a)

(point b)

Charges and Fields

d

+q
F
E
Voltage V

+
+
+
+
+
+
V

E = -V/d
F = +q(-V/d)
F = qE again
Where E is the
field set up
inside the
capacitor

Charges and Fields

V

0
|E|
0
E = -V/d

Several Charges?
+Qc
+Qd
-Qe

+Qa
-Qb

Ea
Eb
Ec
Ed
Ee

Several Charges?
+Qc
+Qd
-Qe

+Qa
-Qb

ETOT

Ea
Eb
Ec
Ed
Ee
ETOT

Charge Density : 3D
3D
(r) in C/mm3
1mm3 = C
1mm3

(ra) > (rb)

Charge Density : 2D
(ra) > (rb)
2D
(r) in C/mm2
1mm2 = C

1mm2

Charge Density : 1D
(ra) > (rb)
1D
(r) in C/mm
1mm = C

1mm

Gausss Law

Gausss Law : Crude

Analogy

Try to measure the rain on a rainy day

Method 1 : count the raindrops as they fall,

and add them up

cf Coulombs Law

Method 2 : Hold up an umbrella (a surface)

and see how wet it gets.

cf Gausss Law
Method 1 is a divide and-conquer or
microscopic approach
Method 2 is a more gross or macroscopic
approach
They must give the same answer.

Electric Field Lines

1C

1C

These are all correct as E-field lines are simply cartoons

For now, adopt a drawing scheme such that 1C = 1 E-line.

1C

Lines of Electric Field

How many field lines
cross out of the circle?

8C 8 lines
16C 16 lines
32C
16C
8C

32C 32 lines

Gausss Law : Cartoon

Version
The number of electric field lines

leaving a closed surface is equal to

the charge enclosed by that surface
(E-field-lines) Charge Enclosed

N Coulombs N lines

Gausss Law Proper ( )

(E-lines) proportional to (Charge Enclosed)

D = E
D.ds
= (r)dv
= (r)dxdydz
D.ds = charge enclosed
= 0 = 8.85 x 10-12 in a vacuum

Digression/Revision
Area Integrals

This area gets

wetter!

Area Integrals whats

happening?

Rainfall
ds

Rainfall
ds

This area gets

wetter!

Area Integrals whats

happening?

ds

Rainfall

ds

Rainfall

Clearly, as the areas are the same, the angle between the
area and the rainfall matters

Area Integrals whats

happening?
Rainfall, R
ds

Rainfall, R

ds

Extreme cases
at 180 - maximum rainfall
at 90, no rainfall

Flux of rain (rainfall)

through an area ds

Fluxrain = R.ds
|R||ds|cos()
Rds cos()

Fluxrain = 0 for 90 cos() = 0

Fluxrain = -Rds for 180 cos() = -1
Generally, Fluxrain = Rds cos()

-1 < cos() < +1

Potential

Potential Start Simply

V
V
Remember the capacitor

0
|E|
0

E = -V/d
E=-(rate of change
of V with distance)

E = -V/d

Should really be E = -dV/dx

And if V = Mx+c, dV/dx = M = constant

Then E = -M as shown

In 3D, dV/dx becomes

(dV/dx, dV/dy, dV/dz) = V, so
E = - V = -(dV/dx, dV/dy, dV/dz)

E = - V

Potential : Analogy

100M

150M

250M
200M

300M

These contour lines are lines of equal gravitational potential energy mgh
Where they are close together, the effect of the gravitational field is strong
The field acts in a direction perpendicular to the countours
and it points in a negative direction (i.e. thats the way you will fall!)

Potential - comments

Walking around a contour expends

no energy

In a perfect world

i.e. no-one moves the hill as you walk!

Walking to the top of the hill and

back again expends no energy

In a perfect world

i.e. the hill stays still and you recoup the

energy you expend while climbing as you
descend (using your internal generator!)

Electric Fields and

Potentials are the Same
5V
Me
ta

l el
ect
ro d
e

5V

1V
2V
0V

ge rs
lta ou
Vo nt
co

Me
tal
ele
ctr
od
e

3V

E-Field lines
4V

Potential Difference :
Formal Definition ( )

The Potential Difference (Voltage)

between a and b is the the work
done to move a 1C charge
from a to b

5V

Me
ta

bx

Me
tal
ele
ctr
od
e

l el
ect
ro d
e

5V

E-Field lines
0V

a x 1C

Potential Difference :
Formal Definition ( )

The Potential Difference (Voltage)

between a and b is the the work
done to move a 1C charge
from a to b
In 1D, Work = -Fd
In 3D, Work = -F.dl
Force = F = QE =+1E = E
Work done = -E.dl
Total Work done = -abE.dl

Line integral revision

dl

dl

dl

dl

dl

dl

E
E

E
E

dl

dl

dl

dl

dl

dl

dl

Potential Difference =
- abE.dl
abis

a line integral

In general mathematics, the value of

a line integral depends upon the
path dl takes from a to b
In this potential calculation, the path
does not matter
So : choose a convenient path

Potential Difference :
Worked Example Point
charge Q
(b)
Place a 1C charge at (a)
Move it to (b)
Work done in this movement
is the potential difference
(voltage) between (a) and (b)

(a)
1C
Q

Capacitance

Some Capacitors

conductor
insulator

Capacitance : Definition

Take two chunks of

conductor

Separated by insulator

Apply a potential V
between them
Charge will appear on the
conductors, with Q+ = +CV
on the higher-potential
and Q- = -CV on the lower
potential conductor
C depends upon both the
geometry and the nature
of the material that is the
insulator

Q+ = +CV
+++++++++++
+++++++++++
+++++++++++

V
- --- -------0--------

V
C
=
Q-

Magnetic Fields

The Story so Far

Maxwells 1st Equation
D.ds charge enclosed v dv

or .D v
Maxwells 2nd Equation
B.ds 0

or .B 0

What creates a magnetic

field?

B = H

What else creates a

magnetic field B?
B

Stationary charge
no B-field

Moving charge
non-zero B-field

Stationary charge
no B-field

Current = Moving
Charges
B

Direction of B, H fields?
Right hand : thumb =
current,
fingers = B-field

Magnitude of B, H fields?

Take an
(infinitesimally small)
piece of wire
Pass a current I
through it
The magnitude of the
ring of field directly
around it is given by
dB = oIdl
4r2
So, for example,
B1>B2>B3

r3
r2

dl
r1
B1

B2
B3

If only it were that

simple

Unfortunately,
dB = oIdl
4r2
is a special case
The element Idl
creates B-fields
elsewhere (i.e.
everywhere) as shown
and, for example,
B4<B1, B5<B2, B6<B3
as the Idl B
distance increases

r3

r6
r2

dl
r1

r5

r4
B4

B1

B5

B2
B3

B6

The Biot-Savart Law

0I dl a$r
dB
4 r 2
dB
r
r

I
dl

Worked Example of BiotSavart Law : Infinite Line of

Current
$
0I dl a r
dB

4 r 2

r
r

I
dl

dB B

Worked Example of BiotSavart Law : Infinite Line of

Current
0I dl a$r
dB
4 r 2

dB
.

R r sin
r

dl

dl

rd

I
rd
rd
sin
, dl
dl
sin

Amperes Law

Try this

Create a contour for integration (a circle seems to make sense here!)

I $
B
a from the Biot-Savart law (a$ is tangential to circle)
2 R

I $
Calculate
B.dl
a.dl note : B and dl are parallel
2

B.dl
Bdl B
dl , ( B = constant)

I
I

B
.
dl

dl

2 R I
2 R
2 R

dl
B
B

B.dl I

B.dl I

H.dl I

B
dl

dl
B

H.dl = Current Ienclosed

This is, as it turns out, Amperes Law

and is the magnetic-field equivalent
of Gausss law
If we define H=B, B=H, then
H.dl = Current enclosed = J.ds

I4
I1
I3
I2
I6

I5

Take a closed contour

These currents are enclosed
And these currents are not!

H.dl = Current Ienclosed

I4
I1
I3

I2

Faradays Law

Changing Magnetic Field

Current and Voltage
B, H
N

Current

Faradays Law
B, H
N

magnetic = total magnetic flux = B.ds

VLOOP = -E.dl
Faradays Law : Rate of change of magnetic flux through a loop
= emf (voltage) around the loop

E.dl

loop

d mag
dt

dB

.ds
surface dt

Lenzs Law

B, H
N

Iinduced
V-, V+

Lenzs Law emf appears and current flows that creates a

magnetic field that opposes the change in this case an
increase hence the negative sign in Faradays Law.

Lenzs Law
B, H

Iinduced
V+, V-

Lenzs Law emf appears and current flows that creates a

magnetic field that opposes the change in this case an
decrease hence the negative sign in Faradays Law.

Faradays Law
Rate of change of magnetic flux through a loop = emf around the loop

dB
.ds

E.dl
loop
surface dt
dB
or ... E
in differential form
dt

Maxwell so far
Integral form

Differential form

Maxwell#1 : D.ds dV
Maxwell#2 : B.ds 0

.D

Maxwell#3 :
.
H.dl Jds
dB
Maxwell#4 :
.ds
E.dl
dt

H J

.B 0
dB
E
dt

Note :
Maxwell#1, Maxwell#2 and Maxwell#4 are complete
Maxwell#3 is still incomplete (just!)

Whats the point of

Faraday?
Take a circuit
Pass a current through it
Magnetic field is created (Ampere)
Put another circuit nearby
If the induced magnetic field
changes in time, Faradays Law
causes an emf and current to appear
This is Magnetic Inductance and the
Mutual Inductance between two
circuits expresses the strength with
which they couple inductively.
It can be used to signal to/from
(and provide power for) remote
circuits, or circuits embedded in
(say) the body.

Inductance
Take a circuit
Pass a current through it
Magnetic field is created (Ampere)
This field passes through the circuit
that created it
If the magnetic field is time-varying,
it induces an emf and thus
a current in the circuit.
This emf opposes the change in
magnetic field that caused it and
thus induces a current in the opposite
direction from the current that caused
the magnetic field in the first place!

inductance

This is (self-)
It depends upon the geometry of the
circuit and what it contains (bits of
iron?).

SON