CHAPTER 4

WEATHERING OF
ROCKS
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LEARNING OUTCOME (CO2:PO1)

LO

- Identify the types of

weathering and their
respective agents

- List out the factors that

influence the rate of
weathering

- Sketch the weathering grade

in accordance to BS 5930

- Identify the products of

weathering

WHAT IS WEATHERING?
Weathering is the process which rocks
disintegrated and decomposed by the action of
external factors such as wind, water, glacier, rain,
temperature, climate changes, chemical soluble,
gravity, plants, turbidity flow, bacteria and etc.
Disintegration physical breakdown
Decomposition chemical alteration

WEATHERING

TYPES OF WEATHERING
2 main types of weathering :
1. Physical Weathering (mechanical)
2. Chemical Weathering
(i) PYHSICAL WEATHERING (MECHANICAL)
Physical weathering is the mechanical breakdown of the
rocks into smaller and smaller pieces without changing the
mineral composition of the rocks by the physical forces.
Physical forces that contribute to this type of weathering
are:5

VIDEO PRESENTATION

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL WEATHERING

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AGENTS OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING

FROST ACTION

MECHANICAL UNLOADING

THERMAL IMPACTS

SALINE CRYSTAL GROWTH

ORGANIC ACTIVITIES
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AGENTS OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING

A) FROST ACTION
Frost action works best in jointed rocks in mountainous
area with cool climates. Water that freezes in cracks and
pores of rocks at temperature 0C will result in an
increment of 9% in volume that will create pressure against
the wall of the fracture eventually widened the cracks

AGENTS OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

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FROST ACTION

FROST WEDGING

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AGENTS OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

B) MECHANICAL UNLOADING
This is a process of reduction of pressure (load) on
underlying rocks by erosion. The rocks expand as pressure
is released and this process is known as unloading. The
response to unloading may cause large joints (sheeting) to
develop. The joints tend to be oriented parallel to the slope
of the terrain. Natural erosion of overlying rocks have
already induced unloading stresses in any exposed rocks.
Further removal of material by
man can create rapid strain.

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AGENTS OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

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AGENTS OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

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Sheeting in granite
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Horizontal joints form by sheeting as

overburden pressure is released
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AGENTS OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

C) THERMAL IMPACT
Happens in mountainous regions and deserts where
rocks are subjected to drastic change of temperature.
The rock will expand as they are heated during daytime
and contract due to cooled temperature at night. This will
lead to cracks and crevices

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AGENTS OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

D) SALINE CRYSTAL GROWTH
Combination of moisture and salts (halite, gypsum, etc)
has been found to cause scaling or decay of building
stones. Stresses due to growth of salt can cause the
rock to break apart physically. This process is
particularly effective in porous rocks subjected to alternate
wetting and drying. Further disintegration of rock may
occur due to expansion of salt crystals which have grown
in former voids

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AGENTS OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

The surface pattern on this
pedestral rock is honeycomb
weathering caused by salt
crystallization. This example
is at yehliu, Taiwan.

Salt weathering of
building stone on the
island of Gozo, Malta
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AGENTS OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

E) ORGANIC ACTIVITIES
The activities of plants and animals and insects
also promote rock disintegration. Burrowing
insects such as worms, ants and rodents
mechanically mix the soil and loose rocks particle.
Pressure from growing roots widens cracks and
contributes to the rocks breakdown

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AGENTS OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

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AGENTS OF PHYSICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

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TYPES OF WEATHERING CONTD.

(ii) CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Chemical weathering reactions are exothermic and
produced minerals of increased volume. Decomposition
produces a chemical breakdown of rocks, which may
destroy the original minerals and produce new ones while
expansion will result in the physical disintegration or
break up of rock. Common processes of chemical
weathering reactions are:-

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AGENTS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING

OXIDATION

DISSOLUTION

HYDROLISIS

HYDRATION

REDUCTION
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AGENTS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING

A) OXIDATION
Oxidation process occur when oxygen in air
assisted by water combines with minerals to form
oxides. Oxidation normally occurs to rock or
minerals such as olivine, pyroxene and amphibole
that contain high iron content. The iron is oxidize
because its loses electrons to oxygen

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AGENTS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

Oxidation turned these

rocks into fire red

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AGENTS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

B) DISSOLUTION
Dissolution is the process whereby rocks and minerals are
dissolved in solution, like salt in water. Quantitatively, the most
important minerals involved in dissolution are the carbonate
minerals, calcite and dolomite. Some rock types can be completely
dissolved. Dissolution of some minerals such as calcite dramatically
increases if the water is slightly acidic. Dissolution of calcite is
responsible for creating limestone cavern (eg. Gua Tempurung)
Rain is slightly acidic because atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolve in
the drops as they fall to the ground.
An acidic solution contains the active hydrogen ion.

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AGENTS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

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AGENTS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

LIMESTONE CAVERN

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AGENTS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

C) HYDROLYSIS

A mineral reacts with either the H+ or the OH(hydroxide) from water to produce a new mineral.
Aluminum silicates do not dissolve in water.
Feldspars weather this way to form clay;
e.g.: plagioclase to clay:
NaAl3Si3O8 + H20 + H2CO3
Na+ + HCO3- + H4SiO4 + Al2Si2O5(OH)4
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AGENTS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

Quartz and feldspar are two most abundant components of
granite.
For example on weathering of granite
- Feldspar decay to form clay minerals
- Quartz which is resistant to decay accumulates as
quartz sand.

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AGENTS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

Hydrolisis Cleopatrais Needle Building

3000 year old building in NY

3000 year old building in NY after

100 years
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AGENTS OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING CONTD.

D) HYDRATION
Hydration is the process whereby a mineral combines with
water to form a hydrated minerals especially hydrated
silicates and hydroxides. The most important aspect of
hydration is that the hydrated minerals is larger in volume
than the parent mineral to exert pressure on its
surrounding space and contribute to rock disintegration
E) REDUCTION
Release of Oxygen from minerals
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VIDEO PRESENTATION

CHEMICAL WEATHERING-FELDSPAR INTO

CLAY
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TYPES OF WEATHERING CONTD.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING contd..
SPHEROIDAL WEATHERING
In this type of weathering, a rounded shape is produced because
weathering attacks an exposed rock from all sides at once, therefore
decomposition is more rapid along the corners and edges of rock.
As the decomposed material falls off, the corners become rounded
and the block eventually is reduced to an ellipsoid or a sphere.
Exfoliation is a special type of spheroid weathering, where the rocks
break apart by separation along a series of layers
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WEATHERING GR
ADES

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WEATHERING GRADES
Schematic diagram of weathering profiles (Fookes,97)

Granite

Metamorphic

Carbonate

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WEATHERING GRADES CONTD..

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METAMORPHIC ROCK

WEATHERING GRADES CONTD..

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GRANITE

WEATHERING GRADES CONTD..

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RATES OF WEATHERING
There are few factors which determine the rate at which
the exposed bedrock being weathered by various agents
of weathering
a) Composition of Rocks
Mineral and chemical composition is one of the most
important factor. Cementing materials
Igneous rocks are resistant to mechanical
weathering but more susceptible to chemical weathering
- Sedimentary rocks e.g dolomites and limestones
are decomposed by carbonation and solution
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RATES OF WEATHERING CONTD.

b) Physical Condition of Rocks
Crevices, cracks, holes will allow weathering agents
penetrate and eventually destruct the rock
c) Topography
Weathering is more rapid at slope area. At high altitude
will increase the rate of weathering due to low
temperature and high rainfall intensity
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RATES OF WEATHERING CONTD.

d) Climatic Condition
Climates which have abundance rainfall and moist will
accelerate the weathering process especially chemical
weathering. Dry or cold weather are usually accelerate
the physical weathering

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PRODUCT OF WEATHERING
Most of the soils that cover the earth are formed by
the weathering of various rocks.

Geologist - Soil is defined as weathered material

that will support the growth of rooted plants

Engineers Soil is simply unconsolidated material

which typically disintegrates in water.

Soil and superficial deposits can either be residual or

transported in origin.
a) Residual Soil
Residual soils develop insitu, and their characteristics
depend on the kind of bedrock from which they are
derived. Residual soil deposits are common in humid43
tropical countries

PRODUCT OF WEATHERING CONTD.

b) Transported Soil
Transported soils are superficial deposits which
accumulate due to the erosion, transportation, and
deposition of weathered residual soil or bedrock. Common
superficial processes and their resulting deposits are:
i) Colluvium Results from process of creep, whereby soil and
weathered bedrock slowly move downslope due to gravity
ii) Alluvium Includes all sediment deposited by streams. The deposits
are stratified into layers of silt, sand, gravel and clay
iii) Glacial drift Includes all deposits formed by glaciers
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PRODUCT OF WEATHERING CONTD.

Colluvium and alluvium

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EROSION
Erosion is one of the important agent of removal
and transportation of superficial materials which
is the product of weathering.
Materials that are susceptible to erosion not
necessarily from weathered soil but any
unconsolidated surgical deposits. There are
three agents of erosion
i) Water
ii) Wind
iii) Glacial Ice
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EROSION BY WATER
The most important type of erosion in terms of
the amount of sediment removed from land
surface such as erosion in streams and river
channels.
Rivers are formed as a result of run-off and of
many different types. There are few factors that
determine the type of erosion:

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EROSION BY WATER CONTD.

a) Abrasion
Depends on load in river and amount of material carried by water. E.g
Sandgrain, pebbles or boulders which act as cutting tools that can
deepen or widen the river bed. Effective where velocity of river is rapid,
river loads are heavy and rolled along the bottom
b) Solution or Corrosion
Water as solvent and have corrosive effect on rocks especially when
water contains acid that could attack the rocks and dissolve the
minerals in the bedrock. E.g. Carbonic Acid from vegetation may
attack rocks such as limestone and dolomite
c) Attrition
Boulders and rock fragments are worn by friction and may be broken
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down as they are rolled and carried along in water.

EROSION BY WATER CONTD.

Erosion Rates by Water
There are three factors that affect the rate at which running
water will erode;
i) Stream sizes Large volume of water can carry larger
loads and therefore very effective during flood stage
ii) Gradient and Velocity Slope at which river flows will
affect the velocity and usually is higher at the source and
lower at estuary. Velocity is usually higher at rivers with
straight channels, free of obstacles and at steep gradient.
Straight and narrow channels will erode more effectively
iii) Nature of Load River with many obstacles will reduce49
velocity and carrying power.

EROSION BY WATER CONTD.

Deposition
Load will be deposited when competency and capacity of
river is decreased for example when the river:
- Decrease in volume
- Loss of velocity
- Obstacles in stream channel
- Widening of stream bed
- Overloading
- Freezing
- Reduction in stream gradient
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EROSION BY WIND
The effect of erosion of soil by wind is similar as erosion
by water where its capable to lifting and transporting
loose sand and dust, but its ability to erode solid rock is
limited
Very fine to fine sand are most susceptible to wind
erosion. It is responsible for the formation of the great
desert like Sahara and other deserts.
Few variables that contribute to the effectiveness of this
type of erosion are velocity, duration, and length of open
area without obstacles over which the wind blows.
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Erosion can be by;

EROSION BY WIND CONTD.

a) Deflation (Blowing away process)
This is the process of lifting and removing of loose sand
and dust particles from earths surface. Occurs where no
vegetative cover at weak area.
Unconsolidated sediment exposed - Wind may blow away
much of the dust and fine sand and create large
depression called deflation basin
Bedrocks are exposed Oasis are created
Vegetation provides physical protection for the soil as well
as holding the moisture. Deflation basins commonly
develop where calcium carbonate cement in sandstone is
dissolved by groundwater. As the result, loose sand grains
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are remain and picked up and transported by wind

EROSION BY WIND CONTD.

b) Deposition
Load is deposited when velocity is decreased due to
obstacle or rain. Types of wind deposits are;
i) Dunes
Formed when there is a sudden drop of speed of wind
forming hills of sand. Usually formed in areas where
there is sufficient amount of loose, unprotected sand and
strong winds

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EROSION BY WIND CONTD.

Many dunes originate when velocity is reduced due to the
present of an obstacle such as large rock and a clump of
vegetation. Therefore, the deposit settles to the ground
ii) Loess
Deposit of windblown silt (dust) that accumulates slowly
and ultimately blankets large areas. Well known for its
ability to form fine textured, fertile, yellowish soils in
areas of sufficient rainfall and important for agricultural
purposes

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REVIEW QUESTION
Describe the following terms (8 marks)
Mechanical weathering
Chemical weathering
Describe three (3) factors that determine the rate of rock
weathering. (9 marks)
How does weathering differ from erosion? (6 marks)
How do organisms contribute to mechanical and chemical
weathering? (3 marks)
What is soil degradation? List three (3) types of soil degradation.(5
marks)

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