Lecture- 5

Technological properties of metals

Steel and its classification

Property
The term property may be defined as the
quality,
which
defines
the
specific
characteristics of a metal.
The different materials possess different
properties in varying degrees and behave in
different ways under given conditions.
Provides a sound basis for predicting its
behavior in manufacturing shop and also in
actual use.
Aids the design engineer to select the suitable
material for various jobs.

Properties of importance
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Physical properties
Mechanical properties
Electrical properties
Thermal properties
Chemical properties

6.

Magnetic properties

7.

Technological properties

Mechanical properties of metal

Determine the range of usefulness
of the metal and establish the
service that can be expected.
Also used to help specify and
identify metals.
Strength
Hardness
Ductility and
Malleability

Importanat properties
i.

Stress

ii.

Strain

iii.

Yield point

iv.

Ultimate stress

v.

Breaking stress

vi.

Elastic Stress

vii.

Linear and lateral strain

i.

Stress - It is defined as the internal resistance set

up by the molecules of a material to resist
deformation, due to the application of external forces.
Stress is expressed load per unit area of cross-section. i.e.,
Where,
Stress O
=
P/A
P
=
Force or load applied,
and
A
=
Cross-sectional area.
ii.

Strain - The deformation or change in length per unit

length, under the action of the external forces.

Strain, e

Where,

dL
---------------L0

L0
L
dL

Original length,
Final length, and
Change in length = L-L0

=
=
=

L- L0
----------------L0

Tensile Stress

Pt
A
P
Pt

=
=
=
=

P/A.
Cross sectional area of bar
Axial tensile force
Tensile stress

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulls

the stress induced at any section of the body is known as tensile
stress.
The ratio of the increase in length to the original length is known
as tensile strain.

Compressive Stress

Pc
A
P
Pt

=
=
=
=

P/A.
Cross sectional area of bar
Axial compressive force
Compressive stress

When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial

pushes, the stress induced at any section of the body is
known as compressive stress.
The ratio of the decrease in length to the original length
is known as compressive strain.

Shear Stress

When a body is subjected to two equal

and opposite forces, acting tangentially
across the resisting section, the stress
induced is called shear stress.
Strain is known, as Shear strain.

Hooke's Law

When a material is loaded within its elastic limit, the stress

is proportional to strain.
Stress
--------Strain

=E

= a constant

Hookes law holds good for

tension
and
compression
stresses. The proportionality
constant it is called modulus of
elasticity or Young's modulus.
It is expressed as N/m2 or MPa
(Mega Pascal).

Elastic Constants
Modulus of Elasticity or Youngs Modulus (E)
Ratio of direct stress to corresponding linear strain within elastic
limit. If p is any direct stress below the elastic limit and e the
corresponding linear strain,
then E = p / e.
Modulus
of
Rigidity
or
Shear
Modulus
(G)
Ratio of shear stress to shear strain within elastic limit. It is
denoted by N,C or G. if q is the shear stress within elastic limit
and f the corresponding shear strain,
then G = q / f.
Bulk Modulus (K)
Ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain within the elastic
limit. If pv is the volumetric stress within elastic limit and ev the
corresponding volumetric strain,
we have K = pv / ev.

Yield point
The
point
at
which
permanent deformation of a
stressed specimen begins to
take place.
This is a point on the stressstrain curve at which the
increase in strain is no
longer proportional to the
increase in stress.

Yield stress = Yield load / original cross-sectional area

Ultimate stress
Ultimate load is defined as
maximum load which can be
placed prior to the breaking
of the specimen.
Stress corresponding to the
ultimate load is known as
ultimate stress.

Ultimate stress= Ultimate load / Original cross-sectional area

Breaking stress or ultimate strength

The stress required to fracture a material whether by compression,
tension, or shear.

ABCDE-

Elastic Limit
Upper Yield Stress
Lower Yield Stress
Ultimate Stress
Breaking Stress

Linear Strain
Linear strain of a deformed body is defined as the ratio
of the change in length of the body due to the
deformation to its original length in the direction of the
force. If l is the original length and dl the change in
length occurred due to the deformation, the linear strain
e induced is given by e=dl/l.

Linear strain may be a tensile strain or a compressive

strain according as dl refers to an increase in length or
a decrease in length of the body.

Lateral strain
Lateral strain of a deformed body is defined
as the ratio of the change in length (breadth
of a rectangular bar or diameter of a circular
bar) of the body due to the deformation to its
original length (breadth of a rectangular bar
or diameter of a circular bar) in the direction
perpendicular to the force.

Mechanical properties of metals

i. Strength
ii. Elasticity
iii. Stiffness, Rigidity
iv. Plasticity
v. Ductility
vi. Malleability
vii.Brittleness
viii.Toughness
ix. Hardness
x. Resilience
xi. Creep
xii.Fatigue

Strength
The property of a material by virtue of which it can
withstand or support an external force or load without
rupture.
Depending upon the value of stress, the strength of a
metal may be elastic or plastic.
Depending upon the nature of stress, the strength of a
metal may be tensile, compressive, shear, bending or
torsional.
There are three typical definitions of tensile strength:
Yield strength: The stress at which material strain changes from elastic
deformation to plastic deformation, causing it to deform permanently.
Ultimate strength: The maximum stress a material can withstand.

Elasticity
The property of a material by virtue of
which it is able to retain its original shape
and size after the removal of the load.
The elasticity is always desirable in
metals used in machine tools and other
structural members.

Stiffness
The property of a material by virtue of which
it resists deformation or deflection under
stress.
It is also known as rigidity.

Plasticity
The property of a material by virtue of which
it a permanent deformation (without
fracture) takes place, under the action of
external forces.
This property finds its use in forming,
shaping and extruding operation of metals.

Ductility

The property of a material by virtue of which it can be

drawn into wires or elongated with the application of a
tensile force, before rupture takes place.
It is measured by its percentage elongation and
percentage reduction in cross sectional area before
rupture.
The ductile materials commonly used in engineering
practice are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin
and lead.

Malleability
The property of a material by virtue of which it can be
rolled or hammered into thin sheets.
The malleable materials commonly used in engineering
practice are lead, wrought iron, copper and aluminium.

Brittleness
The property of a material by virtue of which it will
fracture or break without any appreciable
deformation.
Cast iron, glass, and concrete ate brittle materials
used in engineering.

Toughness
The ability of a metal to deform plastically and
to absorb energy in the process before fracture
is termed toughness.

Hardness
The property of material by virtue of

which it is able to resist wear,

scratching, indentation (or penetration),
deformation and machinability.
The term used to indicate the degree of
hardness that the metal can acquire by
the process of hardening is known as
hardenability.
Hardness refers to the resistance that the material presents to
being penetrated by another material.
In one, test, a hardened steel ball is pushed into the material by a
known force. How far the ball penetrates, as indicated by the
diameter of the indent, is measurement of the hardness.
Another type of hardness test uses a diamond-tipped pyramid that is
forced into the material.

Resilience

The ability of a material to absorb energy when

deformed elastically and to return it when unloaded is
called resilience
or
The property of a material by virtue of which it stores
energy and resists shock and impact loads. It is
measured by the amount of strain energy stored per
unit volume within the elastic limit.
.

Creep - High temperature

progressive deformation
of a material at constant
stress is called creep.
The property of a metal by virtue of which it undergoes
a slow and permanent deformation at constant stress.
Generally creep occurs in a material when it is
subjected to high temperature for a long period of time.
The creep in a metal occurs in three stages.
Stage-1:Material elongates rapidly at decreasing rate.
Stage- 2: The elongation is constant
Stage -3: The elongation increases rapidly until the
material fails.
The stress for a definite rate of strain at a constant
temperature is known as creep strength.

Fatigue
Metal fatigue is caused by repeated cycling of load. It is a
progressive localized damage due to fluctuating stresses and strains
on the material. Metal fatigue cracks initiate and propagate in
regions where the strain is most severe.
The process of fatigue
consists of three stages:
Initial crack initiation
Progressive crack growth across the part
Final sudden fracture of the remaining cross section
The failure is caused by means of progressive crack formation,
which is usually fine and microscopic size.
The failure may occur even without prior indication.
This property of a metal is of great importance in the deign of shafts,
connecting rods, springs, gears etc.

Technological properties
The technological properties of a metal are
those which completely define its behaviour in
shaping, forming, and fabrication operation
during the manufacturing processes.
The important technological properties of a
metal are
i.
Machinability ii.
Weldability
iii. Formability
iv. Castability

Machinability
It is defined as the property of metal, which indicates the
ease with which it can be cut or removed by cutting
tools in various machining operations such as turning,
drilling, boring, milling etc.
Machinability of a metal depends upon mechanical an
physical properties of a metal, chemical composition of a
metal, microstructure of a metal and cutting conditions.
Machinability is a term that includes several parameters:
finish, integrity, tool life, cutting speed, force, chip
formation, composition and properties of material etc.
In general, tool life and surface finish are measures of
Machinability.

Assessing parameters
Machinability can be assessed based on the
following parameters:
Material removal rate (depends primarily
on the cutting speed) for a given tool life
Cutting forces
Surface finish

Material's characteristics
Machinability is influenced by the material's
characteristics:
Mechanical
characteristics
(resistance,
hardness, stretching, work hardening), which
depend partly on the production method used
and the heat treatment carried out.
Thermal properties (evacuation of the heat
cause by cutting).
Chemical properties (inclusion, abrasive particle
or lubricant content).

Weldability
The ability of a material to be welded under imposed
conditions into a specific, suitable structure and to
perform satisfactorily for its intended use.
Many metals and thermoplastics can be welded, but
some are easier to weld than others.
It greatly influences weld quality and is an important
factor in choosing which welding process to use.
Weldability is a measure of how easy it is to:
Obtain crack free welds
Achieve adequate mechanical properties
Produce welds resistant to service degradation.

Factors affecting weldability

1.Composition of the metal
2.Brittleness of the metal at elevated temp.
3.Thermal properties of the metal.
4.Welding techniques, fluxing, and filler
material
5.Proper heat treatment before and after
the deposition of the metal.

Formability
Capability
of
a
material to be shaped
by
plastic
deformation.
Formability
is
the
amount of permanent
deformation that a
material can withstand
before breaking.

Factors affecting formability

1) Crystal structure of the metal
2) Grain size of the metal
3) Hot and cold working
4) Alloying element present in the parent
metal

Castability
It is defined as the property of a metal, which indicates
the ease with which it is casted into different shapes
and sizes from liquid state.
Castability is the ease of forming a casting.
Castability can be thought of as how easy is it to cast a
quality part. A very castable part design is easily
developed, incurs minimal tooling costs, requires
minimal energy, and has few rejections.
Castability can refer to a part design or a material
property.

Factors affecting castability

1.Solidification rate
2.Gas porosity
3.Segregation
4.shrinkage

Steel
Steel is fundamentally an alloy of iron and
carbon, with carbon content varying upto a
maximum of 1.5%.
The carbon is distributed as a compound with
iron if carbon is increased above 1.5%, a stage
soon arrives when no more carbon can be
contained in the combined state and any excess
must be present as free carbon.
It is at this stage that the metal merges into
group termed cast irons.

Alloys with higher carbon content than this are known as

cast iron because of their lower melting point and
castability.It is essentially an iron carbon alloy modified (24%carbon) by the presence of small percentage of silicon,
phosphorus and manganese.
Steel is also to be distinguished from wrought iron
containing only a very small amount of other elements, but
containing 13% by weight of slag in the form of particles
elongated in one direction, giving the iron a characteristic
grain. Wrought iron is highly refined iron with a small amount
of slag forged out into fibers. The chemical analysis shows
as much as 99% of iron.
It is more rust-resistant than steel and welds more easily. It is
common today to talk about 'the iron and steel industry' as if
it was a single entity, but historically they were separate
products.

Types of steel
Steels are a large family of metals.
All of them are alloys in which iron is mixed
with carbon and other elements.
Steels are described as mild, medium- or highcarbon steels according to the percentage of
carbon they contain, although this is never
greater than about 1.5%.

Classification of Steel
Based

on

carbon

content,

steel

can

be

classified as
Unalloyed steel or plain carbon steel ( 0.06
to 1.5%)
Alloy steel (Low alloy and High alloy)

Classification of unalloyed or
plain carbon steel
a. Low carbon or mild steel (0.05 0.3% of C)
b. Medium carbon steel (0.3 0.6% of C)
c. High carbon steel (0.6- 1.5% of C)
d. Tool steel (0.9 1.5% of C)

Plain carbon steel products

Alloy steel
A steel to which one or more alloying elements
other than carbon have been deliberately added
(e.g. chromium, nickel, molybdenum) to achieve
a particular physical property. These steels
have greater strength, hardness, , wear
resistance,
hardenability,
or
toughness
compared to carbon steel.
Low alloy steel is steel alloyed with other
elements,
usually
molybdenum,
manganese, chromium, vanadium, silicon,
boron or nickel, in amounts of up to 10%
by weight to improve the hardenability of
thick sections.

Element

Percentage

Primary function

Aluminium

0.951.30

Alloying element in nitriding steels

Bismuth

Improves machinability

Boron

0.0010.003

Powerful hardenability agent

0.52

Increases hardenability

418

Corrosion resistance

Copper

0.10.4

Corrosion resistance

Lead

Improves machinability

0.250.40

Combines with sulfur to prevent brittleness

>1

Increases hardenability by lowering transformation

points and causing transformations to be sluggish

0.25

Stable carbides; inhibits grain growth

Chromium

Manganese

Molybdenum

25

Toughener

1220

Corrosion resistance

0.20.7

Increases strength

Spring steels

Nickel

Silicon

Higher percentages Improves magnetic properties

Sulfur

0.080.15

Free-machining properties

Titanium

Fixes carbon in inert particles; reduces

martensitic hardness in chromium steels

Tungsten

Hardness at high temperatures

Vanadium

0.15

Stable carbides; increases strength while

retaining ductility; promotes fine grain structure

High-alloy Steels
Stainless steel - Steel with higher alloy
contents are generally called stainless
steel, tool steel, or simply high alloy
steel
depending
on
the
alloying
elements.
Stainless steel is defined as a steel alloy
with a minimum of 11.5wt% chromium
content.
Stainless Steel is a metal alloy popular
as a surface for sinks and appliances.
Stainless steel is a great surface that
doesnt corrode or rust easily.

Classification of steel alloys

According to chemical composition
1. three component steels, containing one alloying
element in addition to iron and caste iron
2. four component steels, containing two alloying
elements etc.
According to structural class
a) Pearlitic b) Martensitic c) Austenitic d) Ferritic
e) Carbidic
According to purpose
1. structural steels
2. tool steels
3. steels with special physical properties