FACTS

Flexible AC Transmission
Systems
By
A.Immanuel
February 26, 2015

UNIT-III
SERIES
COMPENSATION
February 26, 2015

Series compensation
Shunt compensation is ineffective in controlling the actual transmitted power which, at defined transmission

voltage, is ultimately determined by series line impedance and the angle between end voltage of the line.
Series compensation was Implemented in 1950
It is Used to decrease transfer reactance of power line and there by increase the transmitted power.
With FACTS initiative ,it has been demonstrated that variable series compensation is highly effective in
both controlling power flow in line and improving stability.

February 26, 2015

OBJECTIVES OF SERIES
AC power transmission over long lines was primarily limited by
COMPENSATION

the series reactive impedance of the line.

Series capacitive compensation was introduced decades ago to
cancel a portion of the reactive line impedance and there by
increase the transmittable power.
With FACTS initiative, it has been demonstrated that variable
series compensation is highly effective in both controlling power
flow in the line and in improving stability.
series line compensation can be applied to achieve full utilization
of transmission assets by controlling the power flow in the lines,
preventing loop flows and, with the use of fast controls,
minimizing the effect of system disturbances, thereby reducing
traditional stability margin requirements.
February 26, 2015

In this chapter, The effect of series compensation on the basic

factors, determining attainable maximal power transmission,

steady-state power transmission limit, transient stability, voltage
stability and power oscillation damping, will be examined.

Concept of Series Capacitive Compensation:

The power transmission over a single line is

P = (V2/ X) sin

The effective transmission impedance X eff with the series

capacitive compensation is given by

X eff =X - Xc

Or

Xeff = (1 - k)X

where k is the degree of series compensation, i.e.,

k = Xc/X

Ok1

Assuming Vs = Vr = V , the current in the compensated line, and

the corresponding real power transmitted, can be derived in the

February 26, 2015
following
forms:

Two-machine system with series capacitive compensation (a),corresponding

February
26, 2015 (b), real power and series capacitor reactive power vs. angle
6
phasor
diagram

P=Vm*I cos /2 =V.cos /2 *

The

reactive power supplied by the series capacitor can be

expressed as follows:

It can be observed that, as expected, the transmittable power rapidly

increases with the degree of series compensation k.

Similarly, the reactive power supplied by the series capacitor also
increases sharply with k and varies with angle in a similar manner as
the line reactive power
February 26, 2015

Voltage Stability

shunt and series capacitive compensation can effectively increase

the voltage stability limit.

Shunt compensation does it by supplying the reactive load
demand and regulating the terminal voltage.
Series capacitive compensation does it by canceling a portion of
the line reactance and thereby, in effect, providing a "stiff
voltage source for the load.
For increasing the voltage stability limit of overhead transmission series compensation is much more effective than shunt compensation of the same MVA rating.

February 26, 2015

Transmittable power and voltage stability limit of a radial transmission

February
2015
line26,as
function of series capacitive compensation

Improvement of Transient Stability

Equal area criterion to illustrate the transient stability margin for a simple two-machine
system, (a) without compensation, and (b) with a series capacitor
February 26, 2015

10

Power Oscillation Damping

Waveforms illustrating power oscillation damping by controllable series

compensation: (a) generator angle, (b) transmitted power, and (c) degree of
February
2015
series 26,
compensation.

11

VARIABLE IMPEDANCE TYPE

SERIES COMPENSATORS
GTO Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (GCSC)
An elementary GTO Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor, proposed
by Karady with others in 1992, is shown in Fig(a).
The objective of the GCSC scheme is to control the ac voltage v c across
the capacitor at a given line current i.
when the GTO valve, SW, is closed, the voltage across the capacitor .is
zero, and when the valve is open, it is maximum.
The GTO valve is stipulated to close automatically (through
appropriate control action) whenever the capacitor voltage crosses zero.
However, the turn-off instant of the valve in each half-cycle is
controlled by a (turn-off) delay angle l' (0 /2), with respect to
the peak of the line current.
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12

Basic GTO-Controlled Series Capacitor (a), principle of turn-off delay

angle control (b), and attainable compensating voltage waveform (c).

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13

The TCR is a switch in series with a reactor, the GCSC is a

switch in shunt with a capacitor.

The TCR is supplied from a voltage source (transmission bus
voltage),the GCSC is supplied from a current source
(transmission line current).
The TCR valve is stipulated to close at current zero, the GCSC
at voltage zero.
The TCR is controlled by a turn-on delay with respect to the
crest of the applied voltage, which defines the conduction
interval of the valve.
The GCSC is controlled by a turn-off delay with respect to the
peak of the line current, which defines the blocking interval of
the valve.
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14

The TCR controls the current in a fixed inductor from a constant

voltage source, thereby presenting a variable reactive admittance

as the load to this source.
The GCSC controls the voltage developed by a constant current
source across a fixed capacitor, thereby presenting a variable
reactive impedance to this source.

February 26, 2015

15

Thyristor-Switched Series
Capacitor (TSSC)
The basic circuit arrangement of the thyristor-switched series capacitor

is shown in Figure.
It consists of a number of capacitors, each shunted by an appropriately
rated by pass valve composed of a string of reverse parallel connected
thyristors, in series.
the degree of series compensation is controlled in a step-like manner
by increasing or decreasing the number of series capacitors inserted.
A capacitor is inserted by turning off, and it is bypassed by turning on
the corresponding thyristor valve.
A thyristor valve commutates "naturally," that is, it turns off when the
current crosses zero. Thus a capacitor can be inserted into the line by
the thyristor valve only at the zero crossings of the line current
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February 26, 2015

17

In order to minimize the initial surge current in the valve, and the

corresponding circuit transient, the thyristor valve should be

turned on for bypass only when the capacitor voltage is zero
The basic V-I characteristic of the TSSC with four series
connected compensator modules operated to control the
compensating voltage is shown in Figure (a1).
For this compensating mode the reactance of the capacitor banks
is chosen so as to produce, on the average, the rated
compensating voltage, VCmax = 4Xc Imin, in the face of decreasing
line current over a defined interval Imin I Imax
As the current Imin is increased toward Imax, the capacitor banks

are progressively bypassed by the related thyristor valves to

reduce the overall capacitive reactance in a step-like manner and
thereby maintain the compensating voltage with increasing line
current.
February 26, 2015
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The loss, as percent of the rated var output, versus line current

characteristic of the TSSC operated in the voltage compensating

mode is shown in Figure (a2) for zero voltage injection (all
capacitors are bypassed) and for maintaining maximum rated
voltage injection(capacitors are progressively bypassed).
The loss versus line current characteristic for this compensation
mode is shown in Figure (b2) for zero compensating impedance
(all capacitor banks are bypassed by the thyristor valves) and for
maximum compensating impedance (all thyristor valves are off
and all capacitors are inserted).

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19

February 26, 2015

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The TSSC offers the following benefits compared to

mechanically switched series capacitors:
The thyristor switches allow an unlimited number of
operations without any wear. This capability is used to alter
the degree of line compensation more frequently and to
achieve a greater control over the power flow.
Exact switching instants (point-of-voltage waveforms) can
be selected with thyristors, which significantly minimizes
the switching transients. In contrast, the switching of
mechanical breakers is unsynchronized.
A very rapid speed of response, in which the time between
the initiation of a control signal and a capacitor insertion, or
bypass, is typically less than a half-cycle (8 ms for 60 Hz).
No
February
26, 2015
21
generation
of harmonics.

Thyristor-Controlled Series
Capacitor (TCSC)
The

basic Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor scheme,

proposed in 1986 by Vithayathil with others as a method of
"rapid adjustment of network impedance," is shown in Figure.
The basic idea behind the TCSC scheme is to provide a
continuously variable capacitor by means of partially canceling
the effective compensating capacitance by the TCR.
As we know, the TCR at the fundamental system frequency is a
continuously variable reactive impedance, controllable by delay
angle .
The steady-state impedance of the TCSC is that of a parallel LC
circuit, consisting of a fixed capacitive impedance, Xc, and a
variable
inductive impedance, XL(), that is,
February 26, 2015
22

effective reactive admittance, BL(), for the TCR can be given

by

Basic Thyristor-Controlled Series

Capacitor scheme.

XL = wL, and is the delay angle measured from

the crest of the capacitor voltage (or, equivalently,
the zero crossing of the line current).
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23

As the impedance of the controlled reactor, XL(), is varied from its

maximum (infinity) toward its minimum (wL).

the TCSC increases its minimum capacitive impedance, XTCSC.min = Xc
= 1/wC, (and thereby the degree of series capacitive compensation)
until parallel resonance at Xc = XL() is established and XTCSC.max
theoretically becomes infinite.
Decreasing XL() further, the impedance of the TCSC, XTCSC() becomes
inductive, reaching its minimum value of
XLXc/(XL - Xc) at = 0, where the capacitor is in effect bypassed by
the TCR.
Therefore, with the usual TCSC arrangement in which the impedance
of the TCR reactor, XL, is smaller than that of the capacitor, Xc, the
TCSC has two operating ranges around its internal circuit resonance:
one is Clim /2, where XTCSC() is capacitive, and the other is the
0February
26,
Lim range, where XTCSC() is inductive, as illustrated in Figure.
2015
24

The impedance vs. delay angle ex characteristic of the TCSC

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25

February 26, 2015

26

TYPE
SERIES COMPENSATORS
As we know that a voltage-sourced converter with its internal

control can be considered a synchronous voltage source (SVS)

analogous to an ideal electromagnetic generator.
It can produce a set of (three)alternating, substantially sinusoidal
voltages at the desired fundamental frequency with controllable
amplitude and phase angle; generate, or absorb, reactive power;
and exchange real(active) power with the ac system when its dc
terminals are connected to a suitable electric dc energy source or
storage.
A functional representation of the SVS is shown in Figure.

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27

Functional representation of the synchronous voltage source based

on a voltage-sourced converter.
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28

References QRef and PRef (or other related parameters, such as the

desired compensating reactive impedance Xref and resistance

RRef) define the amplitude V and phase angle of the generated
output voltage necessary to exchange the desired reactive and
active power at the ac output.
If the SVS is operated strictly for reactive power exchange, P Ref
(or RRef) is set to zero.
The function of the series capacitor is simply to produce an

appropriate voltage at the fundamental ac system frequency in

quadrature with the transmission line current in order to increase
the voltage across the inductive line impedance, and thereby
increase the line current and the transmitted power.
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The Static Synchronous Series

Compensator (SSSC)

It was proposed by gyugyi in 1989.

It uses the concept of converter-based technology uniformly for

shunt and series compensation, as well as for transmission angle

control.
This device work the same way as the STATCOM. It has a
voltage source converter serially connected to a transmission line
through a transformer.
The basic operating principles of the SSSC can be explained with
reference to the conventional series capacitive compensation of
Figure above, shown simplified in Figure below together with the
related voltage phasor diagram.
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30

Fig:Single line diagram of SSSC

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Fig 1:Basic two-machine system with a series capacitor compensated line and
associated phasor diagram.

Fig 2:Basic two-machine system shown above but with synchronous

voltage source replacing the series capacitor.

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32

The phasor diagram clearly shows that at a given line current the

voltage across the series capacitor forces the opposite polarity

voltage across the series line reactance to increase by the
magnitude of the capacitor voltage.
Thus, the series capacitive compensation works by increasing the
voltage across the impedance of the given physical line, which in
turn increases the corresponding line current and the transmitted
power.
it may be convenient to consider series capacitive compensation
as a means of reducing the line impedance,in reality, as explained
previously, it is really a means of increasing the voltage across
the given impedance of the physical line.
It follows therefore that the same steady-state power transmission
can be established if the series compensation is provided by a
synchronous
ac voltage source,as shown in Fig 2. whose output
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33

precisely matches the voltage of the series capacitor, i.e.,

Vq=Vc=-JXcI=-JkXI
Vc is the injected compensating voltage phasor,
I is the line current,
Xc is the reactance of the series capacitor,
X is the line reactance,
k = Xc/X is the degree of series compensation
In contrast to the real series capacitor, the SVS is able to

maintain a constant compensating voltage in the presence of

variable line current, or control the amplitude of the injected
compensating voltage independent of the amplitude of the line
current.
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34

For normal capacitive compensation, the output voltage lags the

line current by 900.

For SVS, the output voltage can be reversed by simple control
action to make it lead or lag the line current by 900.
In this case, the injected voltage decreases the voltage across the
inductive line impedance and thus the series compensation has
the same effect as if the reactive line impedance was increased.
With the above observations, a generalized expression for
the injected voltage,Vq can simply be written Vq = jVq ()I/I
where Vq() is the magnitude of the injected compensating
voltage (0 Vq()Vqmax) and is a chosen control parameter

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Transmitted Power Versus Transmission Angle Characteristic

The SSSC injects the compensating voltage in

series with the line irrespective of the line current.

The current in a line compensated at its
midpoint by the SSSC is expressed as

The corresponding line-power flow is then

expressed as

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36

Fig 3:

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37

Fig 4:

At = 90, k = 1/5 when Vq = 0.353 and k = 1/3 when Vq = 0.707.

February 26, 2015

38

Comparison of the corresponding plots in Fig 3 and Fig 4 clearly

shows that the series capacitor increases the transmitted power by

a fixed percentage of that transmitted by the uncompensated line at
a given Band.
The SSSC can increase it by a fixed fraction of the maximum
power transmittable by the uncompensated line, independent of ,
in the important operating range of 0 /2.
The SSSC can decrease, as well as increase the power flow to the
same degree, simply by reversing the polarity of the injected ac
voltage.
The reversed (180 phase-shifted) voltage adds directly to the
reactive voltage drop of the line as if the reactive line impedance
was increased.
If this (reverse polarity) injected voltage is made larger than the
February 26,impressed
2015
39
voltage
across the uncompensated line by the sending-

and receiving-end systems, that is, if Vq> lVs-Vrl, then the power
flow will reverse with the line current I =(Vq-lVs-Vrl)/X, as
indicated in Fig 4.

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40

SSSC could not be tuned with any finite line inductance to have a

classical series resonance (at which the capacitive and inductive

voltages would be equal) at the fundamental frequency, because
the voltage across the line reactance would, in all practical cases,
be greater than, and inherently limited by, the (fixed) compensating voltage produced by the SSSC. This compensating voltage
is set by the control and it is independent of network impedance
(and, consequently, line current) changes.
Control Range and VA Rating:The SSSC can provide
capacitive or inductive compensating voltage independent of the
line current up to its specified current rating.
Thus, in voltage compensation mode the SSSC can maintain the
rated capacitive or inductive compensating voltage in the face of
changing line current theoretically in the total operating range of
February
2015
41
zero
to26,Iqmax,
as illustrated in Fig(a1).

The practical minimum line current is that at which the SSSC can

still absorb enough real power from the line to replenish its
losses.
The corresponding loss, as percent of the (capacitive or
inductive) rating of the SSSC, versus line current characteristic is
shown in Fig(a2).
The VA rating of the SSSC (solid-state converter and coupling
transformer) is simply the product of the maximum line current
(at which compensation is still desired) and the maximum series
compensating voltage: VA = ImaxVqmax
The SSSC is established to maintain the maximum rated
capacitive or compensating reactance at any line current up to the
rated maximum, as illustrated in Fig(b1). The corresponding loss
versus
line current characteristic is shown in Fig(b2).
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42

Attainable V-I (compensating voltage vs. line current) characteristics of the SSSC when
operated in voltage control (a 1) and reactance control (b1) modes, and the associated
February
26, 2015
43
loss
vs. line
current characteristics (a2and b2, respectively).

It is seen in Fig above that an SSSC of 1.0 p.u. VA rating covers a

control range corresponding to 2.0 p.u. compensating vars, that is,

the control range is continuous from -1.0 p.u. (capacitive) vars to
+1.0 p.u. (inductive) vars
series capacitors as part of the overall series compensation scheme,
the SSSC may be combined cost effectively with a fixed capacitor,
as illustrated in Figure

February 26, 2015

44

Attainable V-I (compensating voltage vs. line current) characteristics of the hybrid series
compensator of Figure above, when operated in voltage control (a1) and reactance
control (bl ) modes, and the associated loss vs. line current characteristics (a2 and b2,
February 26, 2015
45
respectively).

Capability to Provide Real Power Compensation

series capacitor functions in the transmission circuit as a reactive

impedance and as such is only able to exchange reactive power.

the SSSC can negotiate both reactive and active power with the
ac system, simply by controlling the angular position of the
injected voltage with respect to the line current.
However, the exchange of active power requires that the dc
terminal of the SSSC converter be coupled to an energy source/
sink, or a suitable energy storage.
One important application is the simultaneous compensation of
both active and resistive components of the series line impedance
in order to keep the X/R ratio high.
In many applications, at transmission voltage levels of 115,230,
and even 340 kV, where the X/R ratio is usually relatively low
February
2015
46
(in
the26,range
of 3 to 10).

high degree of series capacitive compensation could further

reduce the effective reactive to resistive line impedance ratio to

such low values at which the progressively increasing reactive
power demand of the line, and the associated line losses and
possible voltage depression, would start to limit the transmittable
active power. This situation is illustrated Fig below.
For a normal angle-controlled line whose uncompensated X/R
ratio is 7.4. by applying series capacitive compensation (e.g., 50
and 75%), the effective Xeff /R =(XL - Xc)/R ratio decreases (to
3.7 and 1.85, respectively).
The reactive component of the line current, I sin(/2+), supplied
by the receiving-end system, progressively increases and the real
component, Icos (/2+), transmitted to the receiving end,
progressively decreases with respect to those which would be
obtained
with an ideal reactive line (R = 0).
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47

Transmitted real power P and reactive power Q vs. transmission angle B as a

48
parametric function of the line XIR ratio.

February 26, 2015

The SSSC with an appropriate dc power supply would be able to

inject, in addition to the reactive compensating voltage, a

component of voltage in anti phase with that developed across
the line resistance to counteract the effect of the resistive voltage
drop on the power transmission
The power loss I2R would, of course, still be dissipated by the
physical line. However dissipated power would be replenished
by the SSSC from the auxiliary power supply.
The real power compensation capability could also be used
effectively in minimizing loop power flows by balancing both
the real and reactive power flows of parallel lines.
Reactive line compensation combined with simultaneous active
power exchange can also enhance power oscillation damping.
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49

Oscillograms from TNA simulation showing the capability of the SSSC

to provide both reactive and resistive series line compensation.

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50

The TNA simulation of a two machine system compensated by

the SSSC with a dc power supply, illustrated above the combined

compensation of the line reactance and resistance.
During the periods of angular acceleration, the SSSC with a
suitable energy storage can apply maximum capacitive line
compensation to increase the transmitted active power and
concurrently absorb active power to provide the effect of a
damping resistor in series with the line.
During the periods of angular deceleration, the SSSC can execute
opposite compensating actions, that is, apply maximum inductive
compensation to decrease the transmitted active power and
concurrently provide the effect of a negative resistance (i.e., a
generator) to supply additional active power for the line
(negative damping).
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Immunity to Sub synchronous

Resonance
The function of the series capacitor is to provide a compensating

voltage opposite to that which develops across the reactive line

impedance at the fundamental system frequency to increase the
transmitted power
the impedance of the series capacitor is a function of frequency
and thus it can cause resonances at various sub synchronous
frequencies with other reactive impedances present in the
network.
the inherent frequency characteristic of the series capacitor in the
dominant sub synchronous frequency band by a parallel
connected thyristor-controlled reactor, making it immune to sub
synchronous resonance with the use of electronic control.
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The voltage-sourced converter-based static synchronous series

compensator is essentially an ac voltage source which, with a

constant dc voltage and fixed control inputs, would operate only
at the selected (fundamental) output frequency, and its output
impedance at other frequencies would theoretically be zero.
The SSSC does have a relatively small inductive output
impedance provided by the leakage inductance of the series
insertion transformer.
The voltage drop across this impedance is automatically
compensated at the fundamental frequency when the SSSC
provides capacitive line compensation.
SSSC is unable to form a classical series resonant circuit with
the inductive line impedance to initiate subsynchronous system
oscillations.
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Internal Control
The discussion on subsynchronous resonance indicates that the
implementation of some SSR immunity strategies requires the
full (magnitude and angle) controllability of the compensating
voltage the SSSC generates.
For output voltage control, converters may be categorized as
"directly" and "indirectly" controlled.
For directly controlled converters both the angular position and
the magnitude of the output voltage are controllable by
appropriate valve (on and off) gating.
For indirectly controlled converters only the angular position of
the output voltage is controllable by valve gating; the magnitude
remains proportional to the dc terminal voltage.
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The control method of maintaining a quadrature relationship

between the instantaneous converter voltage and line current

vectors, to provide reactive series compensation and handle SSR,
can be implemented with an indirectly controlled converter.
The method of maintaining a single-frequency synchronous (i.e.,
fundamental) output independent of dc terminal voltage
variation, requires a directly controlled converter.
high-power directly controlled converters are more difficult and
costly to implement than indirectly controlled converters
(because their greater control flexibility is usually associated
with some penalty in terms of increased losses, greater circuit
complexity, and/or increased harmonic content in the output).
A possible internal control scheme for the indirectly controlled
SSSC converter is shown in Fig below.
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Functional internal control scheme for the SSSC employing an

indirectly controlled converter
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Functional internal control scheme for the SSSC employing a

directly controlled converter
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EXTERNAL (SYSTEM) CONTROL FOR

SERIES
REACTIVE COMPENSATORS
the external control that defines the functional operation of the

compensator and derives the reference input for it can basically

be the same for all types of series compensator.
Additional functions for the improvement of transient (first
swing) and dynamic stability (power oscillation damping) and, in
some cases, for the damping of subsynchronous oscillation may
be included in the external control of the series compensator.
A possible structure of the external control is illustrated in Figure
below.
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Functional external (system) control scheme for the SSSC.

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UPFC
UPFC has following features.
Instantaneous speed of response
Extended functionality
Capability to control voltage, line impedance and

phase angle in the power system network

Enhanced power transfer capability
Ability to decrease generation cost
Ability to improve security and stability
Applicability for power flow control, loop flow control,

load sharing among parallel corridors

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UPFC STRUCTURE
The general structure of UPFC contains back to

back AC to DC voltage source converters

operated from a common DC link capacitor.
The general structure of UPFC is shown in Fig.

Fig : Circuit Diagram of Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)

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Fig Implementation of the UPFC by two back-to-back voltage-sourced

converters
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 In the presently used practical implementation,

the UPFC consists of two voltage-sourced

converters using gate turn-off (GTO) Thyristor
valves.
These converters, labeled converter1 and
converter2, are operated from a common dc
link provided by a dc storage capacitor.
This arrangement functions as an ideal ac to ac

power converter in which the real power can

freely flow in either direction between the ac
terminals of the two converters, and each
converter can independently generate (or absorb)
reactive power at its own ac output terminal
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Converter2 provides the main function of the UPFC by injecting a voltage

Vpq with controllable magnitude and phase angle P in series with the line
via an insertion transformer.

This injected voltage acts essentially as a synchronous ac voltage source.

The transmission line current flows through this voltage source resulting in
reactive and real power exchange between it and the ac system.

The reactive power exchanged at the ac terminal (i.e., at the terminal of the
series insertion transformer) is generated internally by the converter.

The real power exchanged at the terminal is converted into dc power which
appears at the dc link as a positive or negative real power demand.

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The basic function of converter 1 is to supply

or absorb the real power demanded by

converter 2 at the common dc link.
This dc link power is converted back to ac and

coupled to the transmission line via a shuntconnected transformer.

Converter 1 can also generate or absorb

controllable reactive power, if it is desired,

and thereby provide independent shunt
reactive compensation for the line.
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Different operating modes of

UPFC
Active and reactive power flow control
Power flow control by voltage shifting
General Direct Voltage Injection
Direct Voltage Injection with Vse in phase with Vi
Direct Voltage Injection with Vse in Quadrature

with Vi
Voltage Regulation with Vse in phase with Vi
Phase Shifting Regulation
Line Impedance Compensation
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There fore the series converter has following

control modes
Direct

Voltage control mode .

Line impedance emulation mode.
Phase angle Shift emulation mode.
Power flow control mode

Shunt converter has following control modes

Reactive

power control mode.

Voltage control mode.

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February 26, 2015

Fig : Equivalent circuit of UPFC

68

Various Applications of UPFC

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