Heriot-Watt University

INSTITUTE OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

Water Influx
Adrian C Todd

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Reservoir Performance Prediction

Water Influx

Large proportion of the worlds hydrocarbon reserves

have an associated aquifer.
These provide a major part of the energy for producing
oil.
Consideration that oil reservoir was originally occupied
by water and oil has migrated in.
Hydrocarbon and aquifer are therefore part of the
same reservoir systems.
Responding to the pressure changes resulting from oil
production.

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Water Drive

Water drive most efficient displacing agent.

Characteristics:

Pressure decline is very gradual

Excess water production in structurally low wells.

Gas-oil ratio normally remains steady

A good oil recovery anticipated

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Driving Force for Water Drive

Force comes from response to pressure being lowered as a

result of oil production.
Aquifer is part of this system it also responds to the declining
pressure.

In MB fluid production due to compressibility of oil, rock & water.

In aquifer the same is true.

All the elements: expansion of hydrocarbon, water and rock as

pressure declines.
This compressibility gives understanding to water encroachment
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Driving Force for Water Drive

Water encroaches into oil reservoir in

response to pressure reduction from well
production.
Pressure reduction comes from:

Expansion of water due to pressure drop within aquifer.

Expansion of hydrocarbons in the aquifer, if any.

Expansion of rock, which decreases porosity.

Artesian flow, if any, where outcrop is located structurally

higher than HC accumulation, and water replenished at
surface.

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Driving Force for Water Drive

Amount of expansion or fluid encroachment.

The size of the aquifer

Porosity and permeability of the aquifer rock.

The presence of any artesian support.

Amount of water flowing into HC reservoir depends on:

Cross sectional area between oil reservoir and water zone

Permeability of rock in aquifer.

The viscosity of the water.

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Aquifer prediction

Requires considerable information of aquifer reservoir

characteristics.
The decline in pressure from oil and gas production moves
with a finite velocity into the aquifer.
This causes the aquifer, water and rock to expand.
As long as the moving pressure disturbance has not reached
the external limits of the aquifer, the aquifer will continue to
provide expansion water to the HC reservoir.
We refer to finite and infinite aquifers.
Clearly no infinite aquifers, refers to time with respect to
pressure disturbance reaching external limits.
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Uncertainty of water drive

there are still more uncertainties attached to this subject in reservoir

engineering, than to any other.
This is simply because one seldom drills wells into an aquifer to generate
reservoir characteristics.
Instead these properties have frequently to be inferred from what has
been observed in the reservoir.
Even more uncertain is the geometry and areal continuity of the aquifer
itself. The reservoir engineer should therefore consult both the
production and exploration geologist.
Due to these inherent uncertainties the aquifer fit obtained from history
matching is seldom unique and the aquifer model may require frequent
updating as more production and pressure data becomes available.
Dake 1978.

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Artesian vs. Compressibility.

Artesian aquifers considered rare.

Due to faulting, & pinch outs do not communicate to surface.

Must be sufficient groundwater moving in to replace fluid

withdrawl.
Most water influx is considered due to expansion as result of
pressure drop.

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Compressibility

The impact of a reduction in pressure is to

cause expansion of the water and a reduction
in pore volume.
Difficult to separate the water expansion and
rock compression.
Usually combined to give effective water
compressibility.
Compressibility values are low 1.0x10-6 psi-1

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Maximum Water Influx

Aquifer supported oil
reservoir

Assuming no restrictions
due to permeability
maximum water influx
associated with an
aquifer, We, can be
related to the volume of
the aquifer, its
compressibility and the
pressure drop over it

We cWi pi p

Where:

We water influx

Wi initial aquifer volume

pi initial aquifer / reservoir pressure

p current reservoir pressure, at original oil

water contact
c - total aquifer compressibility

The main problem is determining the aquifer characteristic; geometry, size

and flow characteristics.
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Models for Water Encroachment

Water influx arises from pressure changes decompressing

the aquifer
If the pressure can be determined then the volumetric
changes can be obtained

Pressure profiles generated as a

result of decompression in oil and
aquifer as a result of well bore
production.

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Diffusivity Equation

The flow rate at any radius r+dr is q.

The rate of flow at radius r will be
larger by the amount dq caused by:
(I) expansion of the fluid q due to
pressure drop dp over element dr.
Expansion of (i) is too small and can
be neglected

Volume of element is: V 2rhdr

Change in volume dV due to pressure drop dp is;

dV cVdp c2rhdrdp
dV
p
dq
2rhcdr
dt
t
q
p
2rhc
r
t
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Diffusivity Equation

Darcys law for radial flow

Differentiating gives

2rkh p
q
r

q 2kh 2 p p

r 2

r
r
r

Equating equations for q/r

q 2kh 2 p p

r 2

r
r
r

Which gives

p 1 p 1 p

2
r
r r t
2

where

p
2rhc
t

1 c

is the diffusivity constant

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Diffusivity Equation 2 p

1 p 1 p

2
r
r r t

Name comes from flow or diffusion of heat

Equation applies to many conductive systems
In radial flow for aquifer hydrocarbon system.
The inner boundary is the extent of the hydrocarbon
reservoir, the outer boundary is the limit of the aquifer
In flow within the oil reservoir
The inner boundary is the radius of well bore and outer
boundary the radius of the reservoir.

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States of Flow

Diffusivity equation show pressure is a function of time.

As long as this exists p/t is not constant and flow is called unsteady
state
During the unsteady state period we need to analyse the pressure at
each element across the radial symetry to determine the expansion.
After a time p/t becomes constant and pseudo state state exists.
All aquifers are finite, however there is a time period when a pressure
disturbance has not reached the limit of the aquifer, during this time
the aquifer behaves as infinite and unsteady state flow applies.
After the boundary influences the behaviour pseudo steady state flow
starts.

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States of Flow

Diffusivity equation indicates that state of flow is influenced by initial

conditions and the boundaries which have a significant influence.
Two boundary conditions must be specified:
The inner boundary- the oil water interface
The outer boundary the limit of the aquifer

Conditions may be constant pressure, constant rate, closed

boundary etc.
Initial conditions at time =0, a uniform pressure distribution exists.
To solve equation for water encroachment we need to specify the
boundary and initial conditions

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States of Flow

In water influx the common conditions are a closed system,

no flow at the outer boundary.

Constant rate or constant pressure at the inner boundary.

In general constant pressure is used in aquifer modelling

In reservoir behaviour constant rate is assumed at the

inner, well bore boundary

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Schilthuis steady State Model

Simplest model.
Aquifer very large so that pressure remains constant and it
has high permeability, so no pressure gradient across
aquifer.
Hydraulic analogue:
Aquifer tank
pressure constant.
Artesian aquifer or a
very large aquifer

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Schilthuis steady State Model

Initially aquifer and

reservoir at same
pressure.
At intermediate pressure
p, flow will be proportional
to k & A of the pipe, p,
pi-p, 1/, and I/L.
Maximum flow when p=0.
If this rate greater than
reservoir production, then
rate of influx will equal
rate of production and
pressure will stabilise at a
steady state value

dW

p p
This
isC analogue
of Schilthuis steady state
dt
influx equation:
t
e

We C pi p dt
0

C is aquifer constant includes unchanging

values of Darcys Law.
In terms of rate:

dWe
C pi p
dt
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Hurst Modified Steady State

The analogue of this is that the tank is neither large

nor replenished.
The level in the tank falls and the potential of the
aquifer falls.
If this decline is exponential then is represented by:
t

We C1
0

pi p dt
log e at

a is a time conversion constant

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Van Everdingen and Hurst Unsteadystate

The equation will be developed later but is a model which is

generally accepted in water influx modelling.
The hydraulic analogue:

We B pQ t
0

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Van Everdingen and Hurst Unsteadystate

Series of tanks of increasing size.

Initial all tanks at same level or pressure pi.

As production occurs, pressure in reservoir tank causes water

to flow from tank 1.
Pressure in tank 1 causes flow from tank 2 and so on.
Pressure drops are not uniform and will vary with time and
production rate.
They are progressive across the aquifer.
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Pressure distribution for a constant rate of water influx

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Pressure distribution for a constant boundary pressure

If there is an infinite number of tanks, the pressure will

never stabilise
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Analogue figure below represents cylindrical elements in

an aquifer surrounding a circular reservoir.
Analysis of the pressure in each element will enable
expansion of water in each element can produce as a
result of the effective compressibility from a pressure
decline from pi to zero.

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Unsteady state model Van Everdingen & Hurst

p 1 p 1 p

2
r
r r t
2

1 c

Tank model indicates that unsteady state model is the exact

solution.
When influx is small Schilthuis steady sate can usually be
used.
For an active aquifer as pressure drop due to expansion
moves out the expanding water has to move a greater
distance to the oil or gas zone.
The diffusivity equation provides the pressure, radius, time
relationship.
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Unsteady state model Van Everdingen & Hurst

p 1 p 1 p

2
r
r r t
2

Exact analytical solution to this equation for a specific

system will allow the calculation of rate of water influx.
Van Everdingen & Hurst did this in 1949 for both the
constant pressure case and the constant rate case.
They produced a general solution based on dimensionless
functions so that the solution is not specific but can be
applied to different systems.

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Unsteady state model Van Everdingen & Hurst

To enable general application they produced a solution

based on dimensionless functions

Dimensionless time tD, and dimensionless radius rD .

Dimensionless form of diffusivity equation is:

1
p D
p D
rD

rD rD
rD
t D
where

re
kt
2khp
tD
, rD , p D
2
cro
ro
q
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Unsteady state model Van Everdingen & Hurst

re
kt
2khp
tD
, rD , p D
2
cro
ro
q

tD = time, dimensionless

= viscosity, centipoise

= time, seconds

= fraction.

k = permeability, darcy.

c = effective compressibility
aquifer, vol/vol//atmos

ro = reservoir radius, cm.

re = aquifer radius

Converting to units; of time days, k millidarcies, centipoise,

c vol/vol/psi and r - feet

kt
t D 6.323x10
2
cro
3

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Unsteady state model Van Everdingen & Hurst

Van Everdingen & Hurst constant terminal rate boundary

condition is used in well testing. They also derived the
constant terminal pressure solution which is used in water
influx calculations.

q D(TD )

2khp

This is the change in rate from zero to q due to a

pressure drop p applied at the oil reservoir
boundary at time =0

More convenient to express the solution in terms of cumulative water influx

into the oil reservoir rather than rate of influx.
Integrating the above equation therefore gives;
t

tD

dt
qdt q D TD
dt D

2khp 0
dt D
0
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Unsteady state model Van Everdingen & Hurst

t

dt
qdt q D TD
dt D

2khp 0
dt D
0

Which gives

Therefore

We
cro2
Qt
2khp
k

We 2hcro2 pQ t

In oilfield unit terms

or

We = cumulative water influx

due to pressure drop p
Qt = dimensionless
cumulative water influx
function

We 1.119cr hpQ t

We B x pQ t

2
o

where

We - barrels
p psi
Qt - dimensionless

B 1.119cr h
2
o

B considered to be aquifer characteristic, terms do not change with time

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Unsteady state model Van Everdingen & Hurst

Van Everdingen & Hurst have presented their solution

in the form of dimensionless time ,tD and
dimensionless water influx Qt.
This enables their solution to be applied to any
reservoir is radial in nature.
Provided solutions for infinite and finite aquifers.
Dake has provided graphical form of Van Everdingen
& Hurst tables.

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Qt vs. tD

(Dake)

Infinite aquifer

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Qt vs. tD

(Dake)

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Qt vs. tD

(Dake)

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Qt vs. tD

(Dake)

Horizontal line indicates

that the pressure drop
impact has reached the
limit of the aquifer and no
further water is
encroaching

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Non circular systems

Although the solution is for full radial systems the solution

can be applied to a non full radial system where a segment
is considered.
In this case

B 1.119cr hf
2
o

o
f fraction of the reservoir periphery =
360o

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Summary of V&H expressions

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Procedure for a fixed pressure drop

Determine aquifer characteristic B

B 1.119cr hf
2
o

Calculate tD

kt
t D 6.323x10
2
cro
3

From tables or chart determine. Qt.

Calculate We for fixed p

We B x pQ t

Exercise 2
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Application to a declining pressure

The V&H method to water influx is for a constant terminal

pressure solution.
The pressure at the reservoir aquifer contact is constant.
In reality the reservoir contact pressure is declining
continuously.

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Application to a declining pressure

V&H proposed a method by calculating the results for a

series of fixed pressure drops and adding the solutions
together.
By superimposing the effects of a series of fixed pressure
drops a steady declining pressure can be simulated

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OWC

OWC

Pi

Pi

Pi

T=0
T=T1

Pi

P1

Pi

We1 BWP1QBtT1
PQ
e1

T=T2

Pi

P1

P2

We1 BP1Q tT2

T=T3 Pi P1

P2

P3

P2

tT1

P2

We2 BP2 Q t T2T1

P3

We = 0

P3

P1

Pi

We We1 W2
P2

P1 Pi

We1 BP1Q tT3 We2 BP2Q t T3T1 We3 BP3Q t T3T 2

We We1 We2 We3

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Application to a declining pressure

T=T3 Pi P1

P2

P3

P3

P3

P2

P1 Pi

We1 BP1Q tT3 We2 BP2Q t T3T1 We3 BP3Q t T3T 2

We We1 We2 We3

We B pQ t
We B pQ t

What values do we use for p ?

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What values do we use for p ?

The gradual pressure drop is considered to be a series of fixed pressure

drops.
Need a method which will represent this.
Shorter time steps will help to ensure that the pressure drops overlay the
decline curve.

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What values do we use for p ?

First period p
considered to be half of
pressure drop
(pi-p1).
Second period p
considered to be half of
pressure drop period
1+half of p during
second period.
(pi-p1)+ (p1-p2)
= (pi-p2)
Third period p
considered to be half of
pressure drop period
2+half of p during third
period.
(p1-p2)+ (p2-p3)
= (p1-p3)
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History Matching Water Influx

A number of factors have a large influence on the pressure

support from the aquifer.

Size of aquifer

Geometry of the aquifer

Many of these factors are not available to the reservoir

engineer.
Only when production has started that one can determine
the actual pressure support from various drive mechanisms.
Can use the approach of Havlena & Odeh

F NE o NmE g NE fw We
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History Matching Water Influx

Water influx = Initial water volume x pressure drop x

aquifer compressibility.

This ignores unsteady state behaviour.

Need to consider the V&H approach

We B pQ t

F NE o NmE g NE fw We
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Water Drive. No Original Gas Cap

F NE o NmE g NE fw We
pQ t
F

NB
Eo
Eo
re/ro too small or too
large

F
pQt
NB
Eo
Eo

Geometry not correct

Once values give
good match based
on previous
production can be
used to predict
future performance

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Used in Piper field (UK) to determine aquifer

size

Match for infinite aquifer

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Very Small Aquifers

Small aquifers can assume steady state flow and pressure

drop quickly transmitted to the aquifer boundary

We B p
'

'

where p pi p
'

A straight line should give a slope

of B and intercept N.

and B Wi c w
'

Wi is the water volume in aquifer

F
' p
NB
Eo
Eo

'

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Water Drive Gas Cap Known Size

Similar to before
F NE o NmE g NE fw We

pQ t
F

NB
E o mE g
E o mE g
This is a
straight line if
geometry of
aquifer and
time are correct

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Small aquifer Gas Cap Known Size

'
F

p
N B'
E o mE g
E o mE g

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Reservoir Performance Using Unsteady

State Equation and the MB equation

With both water influx and MB equation there are two

unknowns, We & Pressure.
It is not straightforward to predict performance. It is a
trail and error approach.
1. Collect all available reservoir & subsurface data.
2. From past production data we can calculate the
aquifer constant B. MB gives We and for a known
aquifer can determine B.
Important to do this for a number of past times.

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Reservoir Performance Using Unsteady State

Equation
MB equation
F NE and
NmEthe
NE
W
o

fw

We MB F N E o NmE g NE fw

Using unsteady state equation and knowing

time and pressure drops can determine
pQt.
Value of aquifer characteristic, B.

We(MB)

pQ

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Reservoir Performance Using Unsteady

State
and oil,
thegasMB
equation
Using
pastEquation
trends of production,
& water,
the future trends are
projected.

Trail & error approach.

1. Estimate pressure after say 6 months

2. Gross We calculated by MB and USS equations

3. If both agree pressure assumed is correct. If not another selected until

agreement reached.
Procedure carried out for each time period.
Different combinations of production rates should be used and associated
decline predictions of pressure made against each set of production
values.

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Other approaches to We prediction

V&A USS method although giving a good prediction it is

tedious in its application.
Fetkovitch in 1971 provided an approach based on the
productivity approach.
It can only be applied however to finite aquifers.
In 1960 Carter & Tracy produced a method based on the
constant terminal rate solution which does not require a
superposition of values to apply to a declining pressure as
does the V&A USS method.

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