Chapter 5

Lecture Outline

5-1
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Histology

Study of Tissues
Epithelial Tissue
Connective Tissue
Nervous and Muscular Tissue
Intercellular Junctions, Glands and
Membranes
Tissue Growth, Development, Death and
Repair
5-2

The Study of Tissues

50 trillion cells of 200 different cell types
four broad categories of tissues
epithelial tissue
connective tissue
nervous tissue
muscular tissue

organ - structure with discrete boundaries

that is composed of two or more tissue types
histology (microscopic anatomy) the study
of tissues and how they are arranged into
5-3
organs

The Primary Tissue Classes

tissue a group of similar cells and cell products that arise
from the same region of the embryo and work together to
perform a specific structural or physiological role in an organ.
four primary tissues differ from one another in the:
types and functions of their cells
the characteristics of the matrix (extracellular material)
the relative amount of space occupied by cells versus matrix

matrix (extracellular material) is composed of :

fibrous proteins
a clear gel known as ground substance , tissue fluid,
extracellular fluid (ECF), interstitial fluid, or tissue gel
5-4

Embryonic Tissues
human development begins as single cell the fertilized egg
divides to produce scores of identical, smaller cells
first tissues appear when these cells start to organize themselves
into layers
first two, and then three strata

3 primary germ layers

ectoderm (outer)
gives rise to epidermis and nervous system

endoderm (inner)
gives rise to mucous membrane lining digestive and respiratory tracts,
digestive glands, and among other things

mesoderm (middle) becomes gelatinous tissue - mesenchyme

wispy collagen fibers and fibroblasts in gel matrix
gives rise to muscle, bone, blood

5-5

Interpreting Tissue Sections

preparation of histological specimens
fixative prevents decay (formalin)
histological sections tissue is sliced into
thin sections one or two cells thick
stains tissue is mounted on slides and
artificially colored with histological stain
stains bind to different cellular components

Sectioning reduces three-dimensional

structure to two-dimensional slice
5-6

Sectioning Solid Objects

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sectioning a cell
with a centrally
located nucleus
some slices
miss the cell
nucleus
in some the
nucleus is
smaller
(a)

Figure 5.1a

5-7

Sectioning Hollow Structures

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cross section of
blood vessel, gut,
or other tubular
organ.
longitudinal
section of a
sweat gland.
notice what a
single slice could
look like.
(c)

(b)

Figure 5.1b,c

5-8

Types of Tissue Sections

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Longitudinal sections

longitudinal section (l.s.)

tissue cut along long direction of
organ

Cross sections

cross section (c.s. or x.s.) or

transverse section (t.s.)
tissue cut perpendicular to
length of organ

Oblique sections

oblique section
tissue cut at angle between
cross and longitudinal section

Figure 5.2

5-9

Nonsectioned Preparation
Smear tissue is rubbed or spread
across the slide
spinal cord or blood

Spread cobwebby tissue is laid out on a

slide
areolar tissue
5-10

Epithelial Tissue

consists of a flat sheet of closely adhering cells

one or more cells thick

upper surface usually exposed to the environment or an internal

space in the body

covers body surface

lines body cavities

forms the external and internal linings of many organs

constitutes most glands

extracellular material is so thin it is not visible with a light

microscope

epithelia allows no room for blood vessels

lie on a layer of loose connective tissue and depend on its blood

vessels for nourishment and waste removal

5-11

Basement Membrane
basement membrane layer between an epithelium
and the underlying connective tissue
basement membrane contains:
collagen
laminin and fibronectin adhesive glycoproteins
heparin sulfate - large protein-carbohydrate complex

anchors the epithelium to the connective tissue below it

basal surface surface of an epithelial cell that faces
the basement membrane
apical surface surface of an epithelial cell that faces
away from the basement membrane

5-12

Simple vs. Stratified Epithelia

Stratified epithelium

Simple epithelium
contains one layer of cells
named by shape of cells
all cells touch the basement
membrane

contains more than one layer

named by shape of apical cells
some cells rest on top of others
and do not touch basement
membrane

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(a)

Classes of
epithelium

Simple

(b)

Pseudostratified
columnar

Stratified

Cell
shapes

Squamous

Cuboidal

Figure 5.3

Columnar

5-13

Simple Epithelia
four types of simple epithelia
three named for their cell shapes
simple squamous (thin scaly cells)
simple cuboidal (square or round cells)
simple columnar (tall narrow cells)

fourth type
pseudostratified columnar

not all cells reach the free surface

shorter cells are covered over by taller ones
looks stratified
every cell reaches the basement membrane

goblet cells wineglass-shaped mucus secreting cells

in simple columnar and pseudostratified epithelia

5-14

Simple Squamous Epithelium

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Squamous epithelial cells

Nuclei of smooth muscle

Basement membrane

(b)

(a)

a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.4a

Figure 5.4b,i

single row of thin cells

permits rapid diffusion or transport of substances
secretes serous fluid
alveoli, glomeruli, endothelium, and serosa

5-15

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

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Lumen of kidney tubule

(a)

Cuboidal epithelial cells

Basement membrane

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.5a

Figure 5.5b,i

single layer of square or round cells

absorption and secretion, mucus production and movement
liver, thyroid, mammary and salivary glands, bronchioles,
5-16
and kidney tubules

Simple Columnar Epithelium

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Brush border
(microvilli)

Connective
tissue

Basement
membrane

(b)

Goblet
Nuclei cell

Columnar
cells

Figure 5.6b,i

single row tall, narrow cells

oval nuclei in basal half of cell
brush border of microvilli, ciliated in some organs, may possess
goblet cells

absorption and secretion; mucus secretion

lining of GI tract, uterus, kidney and uterine tubes

5-17

Pseudostratified Epithelium
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Cilia

(a)

Basement membrane

Basal cells Goblet cell

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.7a

Figure 5.7b,i

looks multilayered; some not reaching free surface; all touch basement
membrane
nuclei at several layers
with cilia and goblet cells

secretes and propels mucus

respiratory tract and portions of male urethra

5-18

Stratified Epithelia

range from 2 to 20 or more layers of cells

some cells resting directly on others
only the deepest layer attaches to the basement membrane
three stratified epithelia are named for the shapes of their surface cells
stratified squamous
stratified cuboidal
stratified columnar (rare)

fourth type
transitional epithelium

most widespread epithelium in the body

deepest layers undergo continuous mitosis
their daughter cells push toward the surface and become flatter as they
migrate farther upward
finally die and flake off exfoliation or desquamation

two kinds of stratified squamous epithelia

keratinized found on skin surface, abrasion resistant
nonkeratinized lacks surface layer of dead cells

5-19

Keratinized Stratified Squamous

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Dead squamous cells

Living epithelial cells

Dense irregular
connective tissue

Areolar tissue

(a)

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Joe DeGrandis, photographer

Figure 5.8a

Figure 5.8b,i

multiple cell layers with cells becoming flat and scaly

toward surface
epidermis; palms and soles heavily keratinized
resists abrasion; retards water loss through skin; resists
penetration by pathogenic organisms

5-20

Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous

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Living epithelial cells

Connective tissue

(b)

(a)

a: Ed Reschke

Figure 5.9a

Figure 5.9b,i
same as keratinized epithelium without the surface layer of dead
cells
tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus and vagina
5-21
resists abrasion and penetration of pathogens

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

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Cuboidal cells

(a)

Epithelium

Connective tissue

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.10b,i
Figure 5.10a
two or more cell layers; surface cells square or round
secretes sweat; sperm production and produces ovarian hormones
sweat gland ducts; ovarian follicles and seminiferous
tubules

5-22

Transitional Epithelium
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Basement
membrane

(a)

Connective
tissue

Binucleate
epithelial cell

(b)
a: Johnny R. Howze

Figure 5.11a

Figure 5.11b,i

multilayered epithelium surface cells that change from

round to flat when stretched
allows for filling of urinary tract
ureter and bladder

5-23

Connective Tissue
connective tissue a type of tissue in which cells
usually occupy less space than the extracellular
material
binds organs to each other
support and protect organs
most cells of connective tissue are not in direct
contact with each other
separated by extracellular material

highly vascular richly supplied with blood vessels

most abundant, widely distributed, and histologically
variable of the primary tissues
5-24

Functions of Connective Tissue

binding of organs tendons and ligaments
support bones and cartilage
physical protection cranium, ribs, sternum
immune protection white blood cells attack
foreign invaders
movement bones provide lever system
storage fat, calcium, phosphorus
heat production metabolism of brown fat in
infants
transport - blood

5-25

Components of Fibrous
Connective Tissue

cells

fibroblasts produce fibers and ground substance

macrophages phagocytize foreign material and activate
immune system when sense foreign matter (antigen)
arise from white blood cell - monocytes

leukocytes or white blood cells

neutrophils wander in search of and attacking bacteria
lymphocytes react against bacteria, toxins, and other foreign
material

plasma cells synthesize disease fighting antibodies

arise from lymphocytes

mast cells found along side of blood vessels

secrete heparin inhibits clotting
histamine that dilates blood vessels

adipocytes store triglycerides (fat molecules)

5-26

Components of Fibrous
Connective Tissue

fibers
collagenous fibers

most abundant of the bodys proteins 25%

tough, flexible, and resist stretching
tendons, ligaments, and deep layer of the skin are mostly collagen
less visible in matrix of cartilage and bone

reticular fibers
thin collagen fibers coated with glycoprotein
form framework of such organs as spleen and lymph nodes

elastic fibers

thinner than collagenous fibers

branch and rejoin each other
made of protein called elastin
allows stretch and recoil
yellow fibers fresh elastic fibers

5-27

Components of Fibrous
Connective Tissue

ground substance

usually a gelatinous to rubbery consistency resulting from three

classes of large molecules
glycosaminoglycans (GAG)
long polysaccharide composed of unusual disaccharides called amino
sugars and uronic acid
play important role of regulating water and electrolyte balance in the
tissues
chondroitin sulfate most abundant GAG
in blood vessels and bone
responsible for stiffness of cartilage

hyaluronic acid viscous, slippery substance that forms an effective

lubricant in joints and constitutes much of the vitreous body of the eyeball

proteoglycan
gigantic molecule shaped like a test-tube brush
forms thick colloids that creates strong structural bond between cells and
extracellular macromolecules holds tissues together
adhesive glycoproteins bind components of tissues together
5-28

Types of Fibrous Connective Tissue

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loose connective tissue

much gel-like ground
substance between cells
types

Tendons

areolar
reticular

dense connective tissue

fibers fill spaces between cells
types vary in fiber orientation
dense regular connective tissue
dense irregular connective tissue

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Rebecca Gray, photographer/Don Kincaid, dissections

Figure 5.13
5-29

Areolar Tissue
loosely organized fibers, abundant blood vessels, and a lot
of seemingly empty space
possess all six cell types
fibers run in random directions
mostly collagenous, but elastic and reticular also present

found in tissue sections from almost every part of the body

surrounds blood vessels and nerves

nearly every epithelium rests on a layer of areolar tissue

blood vessels provide nutrition to epithelium and waste removal
ready supply of infection fighting leukocytes that move about freely
in areolar tissue

5-30

Areolar Tissue
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Ground
substance

(a)

Elastic
fibers

Collagenous
fibers

Fibroblasts

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.14a

Figure 5.14b,i

loosely organized fibers, abundant blood vessels, and a

lot of seemingly empty space
underlies all epithelia, in serous membranes, between
5-31
muscles, passageways for nerves and blood vessels

Reticular Tissue
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Leukocytes

(a)

Reticular
fibers

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Al Telser, photographer

Figure 5.15a

Figure 5.15b,i

mesh of reticular fibers and fibroblasts

forms supportive stroma (framework) for lymphatic
organs
found in lymph nodes, spleen, thymus and bone
marrow

5-32

Dense Regular Connective Tissue

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Collagen fibers

(a)

Ground substance

Fibroblast nuclei

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.16a

Figure 5.16b,i

densely, packed, parallel collagen fibers

compressed fibroblast nuclei
tendons attach muscles to bones and ligaments
hold bones together

5-33

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

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Bundles of
Gland
collagen fibers ducts

(a)

Fibroblast Ground
nuclei
substance

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.17a

Figure 5.17b,i

densely packed, randomly arranged, collagen

fibers and few visible cells
withstands unpredictable stresses
deeper layer of skin; capsules around organs

5-34

Adipose Tissue

adipose tissue (fat) tissue in which adipocytes are the dominant cell type

space between adipocytes is occupied by areolar tissue, reticular tissue, and blood
capillaries

fat is the bodys primary energy reservoir

the quantity of stored triglyceride and the number of adipocytes are quite stable in a
person
fat is recycled continuously to prevent stagnation
new triglycerides are constantly synthesized and stored
old triglycerides are hydrolyzed and released into circulation

provides thermal insulation

anchors and cushions organs such as eyeball, kidneys

contributes to body contours female breast and hips

on average, women have more fat than men

too little fat can reduce female fertility

most adult fat is called white fat

brown fat in fetuses, infants, children a heat generating tissue

5-35

Adipose Tissue
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Blood
vessel

(a)

Adipocyte
nucleus

Lipid in
adipocyte

(b)

a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.18a

Figure 5.18b,i

empty-looking cells with thin margins; nucleus pressed

against cell membrane
energy storage, insulation, cushioning
subcutaneous fat and organ packing
brown fat (hibernating animals) produces heat

5-36

Cartilage

supportive connective tissue with flexible, rubbery matrix

gives shape to ear, tip of nose, and larynx

chondroblasts produce matrix and surround them selves until they

become trapped in little cavities (lacunae)

chondrocytes cartilage cells in lacunae

perichondrium sheath of dense irregular connective tissue that

surrounds elastic and most hyaline cartilage (not articular cartilage)
contains a reserve population of chondroblasts that contribute to cartilage
growth throughout life

No blood vessels
diffusion brings nutrients and removes wastes
heals slowly

matrix rich in chondroitin sulfate and contain collagen fibers

types of cartilage vary with fiber types

hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage and elastic cartilage

5-37

Hyaline Cartilage
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Matrix

(a)

Cell
nest Perichondrium

Lacunae

Chondrocytes

(b)
a: Ed Reschke

Figure 5.19a
Figure 5.19b,i
clear, glassy microscopic appearance because of unusual
fineness of the collagen fibers
usually covered by perichondrium
articular cartilage, costal cartilage, trachea, larynx, fetal skeleton
eases joint movement, holds airway open, moves vocal cords during
5-38
speech

Elastic Cartilage
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Perichondrium

(a)

Elastic
fibers

Lacunae

Chondrocytes

(b)
a: Ed Reschke

Figure 5.20a

Figure 5.20b,i

cartilage containing elastic fibers

covered with perichondrium
provides flexible, elastic support
external ear and epiglottis

5-39

Fibrocartilage
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Collagen
fibers

(a)

Chondrocytes

(b)
a: Dr. Alvin Telser

Figure 5.21a

Figure 5.21b,i

cartilage containing large, coarse bundles of collagen fibers

never has perichondrium
resists compression and absorbs shock
pubic symphysis, menisci, and intervertebral discs

5-40

Bone
bone has two meanings:
an organ of the body; femur, mandible; composed of multiple
tissue types
bone tissue osseous tissue makes up most of the mass of
bone

two forms of osseous tissue

spongy bone - spongy in appearance
delicate struts of bone - trabeculae
covered by compact bone
found in heads of long bones and in middle of flat bones such as the
sternum

compact bone denser calcified tissue with no visible spaces

more complex arrangement
cells and matrix surround vertically oriented blood vessels in long
bones

5-41

Bone Tissue (compact bone)

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Concentric
Central
lamellae
Lacunae Canaliculi of osteon canal Osteon

(a)

(b)
a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.22a

Figure 5.22b,i

most compact bone is arranged in cylinders that surround central (haversian or

osteonic) canals that run longitudinally through shafts of long bones
blood vessels and nerves travel through central canal

bone matrix deposited in concentric lamella

onionlike layers around each central canal

osteon central canal and its surrounding lamellae

osteocytes mature bone cells that occupy the lacunae
canaliculi delicate canals that radiate from each lacuna to its neighbors, and
allows osteocytes to contact each other
5-42
periosteum tough fibrous connective tissue covering of the bone as a whole

Blood
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fluid connective tissue

Platelets

Neutrophils

Lymphocyte

Erythrocytes

Monocyte

transports cells and dissolved

matter from place to place
plasma bloods liquid
ground substance
formed elements cells and
cell fragments
erythrocytes red blood
cells transport O2 and CO2
leukocytes white blood
cells defense against
infection and other diseases
platelets cell fragments
involved in clotting and other
mechanisms

(b)

Figure 5.23b,i

5-43

Excitable Tissues
Muscular & Nervous Tissue
excitability a characteristic of all living cells
developed to highest degree in nervous and muscular
tissues

membrane potential electrical charge difference

(voltage) that occurs across the plasma
membranes is the basis for their excitation
respond quickly to outside stimulus by means of
changes in membrane potential
nerves changes result in rapid transmission of signals
to other cells
muscles changes result in contraction, shortening of
the cell
5-44

Nervous Tissue
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nervous tissue specialized for

communication by electrical and
chemical signals

Nuclei of glial cells

Axon

Neurosoma

Dendrites

consists of neurons (nerve cells)

detect stimuli
respond quickly
transmit coded information rapidly to other
cells

and neuroglia (glial)

protect and assist neurons
housekeepers of nervous system

neuron parts
neurosoma (cell body)
houses nucleus and other organelles
cells center of genetic control and protein
synthesis

dendrites
multiple short, branched processes
receive signals from other cells
transmit messages to neurosoma

(b)

Figure 5.24b,i

axon (nerve fiber)

sends outgoing signals to other cells
can be more than a meter long

5-45

Muscular Tissue
muscular tissue elongated cells that are
specialized to contract in response to stimulation
primary job is to exert physical force on other
tissues and organs
creates movements involved in body and limb
movement, digestion, waste elimination, breathing,
speech, and blood circulation
important source of body heat
three types of muscle: skeletal, cardiac, and
smooth

5-46

Skeletal Muscle

long, threadlike cells muscle fibers

most attach to bone
exceptions in tongue, upper esophagus, facial muscles, some
sphincter muscles (ringlike or cufflike muscles that open and close
body passages)

contains multiple nuclei adjacent to plasma membrane

striations alternating dark and light bands
voluntary conscious control over skeletal muscles
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display.

Nuclei

(a)

Striations

Muscle fiber

(b)
a: Ed Reschke

Figure 5.25a

Figure 5.25b,i

5-47

Cardiac Muscle
limited to the heart
myocytes or cardiocytes are much shorter, branched, and notched at
ends
contain one centrally located nucleus surrounded by light staining
glycogen
intercalated discs join cardiocytes end to end
provide electrical and mechanical connection

striated, and involuntary (not under conscious control)

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Intercalated discs

(a)

Striations

Glycogen

(b)

Ed Reschke

Figure 5.26a

Figure 5.26b,i

5-48

Smooth Muscle
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Nuclei

(a)

Figure 5.27a

Muscle cells

(b)

a: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

Figure 5.27b,i

lacks striations and is involuntary

relatively short, fusiform cells (thick in middle, tapered at ends)
one centrally located nucleus
visceral muscle forms layers of digestive, respiratory, and urinary tract:
blood vessels, uterus and other viscera
propels contents through an organ, regulates diameter of blood vessels
5-49

Intercellular Junctions
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Tight junction
Plasma membrane
Membrane protein
Intercellular space
Desmosome
Intermediate filaments
Glycoprotein
Protein plaque
Intercellular space
Plasma membrane
Gap junction
Pore
Connexon

Membrane
protein
Cell nucleus

Basement membrane
Hemidesmosome
Pore
Proteins

Figure 5.28

intercellular junctions connections between one cell and another

all cells (except blood and metastatic cancer cells) are anchored to each
other or their matrix by intercellular junctions
resist stress and communicate with each other
5-50

Tight Junctions
tight junction a region in which adjacent cells are bound together
by fusion of the outer phospholipid layer of their plasma membranes.
in epithelia, forms a zone that complete encircles each cell near its apical pole
seals off intercellular space
makes it impossible for something to pass between cells

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Tight junction

Desmosome

Gap junction

Figure 5.28

5-51

Desmosomes

desmosomes - patch that holds cells together (like a clothing snap)

serves to keep cells from pulling apart resists mechanical stress
hooklike J-shaped proteins arise from cytoskeleton
approach cells surface
penetrate into thick protein plaques linked to transmembrane proteins

hemidesmosomes anchor the basal cells of epithelium to the underlying

basement membrane
epithelium can not easily peel away from underlying tissues

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Tight junction

Desmosome

Gap junction

Figure 5.28

5-52

Gap Junctions
gap (communicating) junction formed by a ringlike connexon
consists of six transmembrane proteins arranged like segments of an
orange
surrounding a water-filled pores
ions, glucose, amino acids and other solutes pass from one cell to the next

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Tight junction

Desmosome

Gap junction

Figure 5.28

5-53

Endocrine and Exocrine Glands

gland cell or organ that secrete substances for use elsewhere in the
body or releases them for elimination from the body
composed of epithelial tissue in a connective tissue framework and capsule

exocrine glands - maintain their contact with the body surface by way of a
duct (epithelial tube that conveys secretion to surface)
sweat, mammary and tear glands

endocrine glands - lose their contact with the surface and have no ducts
hormones secretion of endocrine glands
secrete (hormones) directly into blood
thyroid, adrenal and pituitary glands

some organs have both endocrine and exocrine function

liver, gonads, pancreas

unicellular glands found in epithelium that is predominantly

nonsecretory
can be endocrine or exocrine
mucus-secreting goblet or endocrine cells of stomach and small intestine

5-54

Exocrine Gland Structure

Lobules

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display.

Secretory
acini

Lobes

Duct
Parenchyma

Secretory
vesicles

Stroma:
Capsule
Septum
(a)

Figure 5.29
(b)

Duct

Acinus

capsule connective covering of most glands

septa or trabeculae extensions of capsule that divide the interior of the
gland into compartments (lobes)
further divided into smaller lobules

stroma connective tissue framework of the gland

supports and organizes glandular tissue

parenchyma the cells that perform the tasks of synthesis and secretion
typically cuboidal or simple columnar epithelium

5-55

Types of Exocrine Glands

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Simple coiled tubular

Compound acinar

Compound tubuloacinar

Example: Sweat gland

Example: Pancreas

Key

Example: Mammary gland

Duct
Secretory portion

Figure 5.30

simple - unbranched duct

compound - branched duct
shape of gland
tubular duct and secretory portion have uniform diameter
acinar - secretory cells form dilated sac (acinus or alveolus)
tubuloacinar - both tubular and acinar portions

5-56

Types of Secretions
serous glands
produce thin, watery secretions
perspiration, milk, tears and digestive juices

mucous glands
produce glycoprotein, mucin, that absorbs water to form a
sticky secretion called mucus
goblet cells unicellular mucous glands

mixed glands
contain both cell types and produce a mixture of the two
types of secretions

cytogenic glands
release whole cells, sperm and egg cells

5-57

Methods of Secretion
Merocrine Gland
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merocrine glands (eccrine

glands) have vesicles that
release their secretion by
exocytosis
tear glands, pancreas, gastric
glands, and others

Exocytosis
Nucleus
Secretory
vesicle

(a) Merocrine gland

apocrine glands primarily

merocrine mode of secretion
axillary sweat glands, mammary
glands

Figure 5.31a

5-58

Methods of Secretion
Holocrine Gland
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Figure 5.31b

(b) Holocrine gland

holocrine glands cells accumulate a product and then

the entire cell disintegrates
secretion a mixture of cell fragments and synthesized substance
oil glands of scalp, glands of eyelids
5-59

Membranes
membranes line body cavities and cover their viscera
cutaneous membrane - the skin largest membrane in the body
stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis) over connective tissue (dermis)
relatively dry layer serves protective function

mucous membrane (mucosa) lines passageways open to the

external environment
serous membrane (serosa) - internal membrane
simple squamous epithelium over areolar tissue
produces serous fluid that arises from blood
covers organs and lines walls of body cavities
endothelium lines blood vessels and heart
mesothelium line body cavities (pericardium, peritoneum and pleura)

synovial membrane - lines joint cavities

connective tissue layer only, secretes synovial fluid
5-60

Mucous Membranes (Mucosa)

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Mucous coat
Cilia

Epithelium

Mucin in
goblet cell
Ciliated cells of
pseudostratified
epithelium

Basement
membrane

Mucous
membrane
(mucosa)

Blood vessel
Lamina
propria

Collagen fibers
Fibroblast
Elastic fibers
Muscularis
mucosae

Figure 5.32
lines passages that open to the external environment
digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts

consists of two to three layers:

epithelium
lamina propria areolar connective tissue
muscularis mucosae smooth muscle layer

absorptive, secretory, and protective functions

covered with mucus

5-61

Tissue Growth
tissue growth increasing the number of cells or
the existing cells grow larger
hyperplasia - tissue growth through cell
multiplication
hypertrophy - enlargement of preexisting cells
muscle grow through exercise
accumulation of body fat

neoplasia development of a tumor (neoplasm)

benign or malignant
composed of abnormal, nonfunctional tissue
5-62

Changes in Tissue Types

Tissues can change types
Differentiation
unspecialized tissues of embryo become specialized
mature types
mesenchyme to muscle

Metaplasia
changing from one type of mature tissue to another
simple cuboidal tissue of vagina before puberty changes to
stratified squamous after puberty
pseudostratified columnar epithelium of bronchi of smokers to
stratified squamous epithelium
5-63

Stem Cells

stem cells - undifferentiated cells that are not yet performing any
specialized function
have potential to differentiate into one or more types of mature
functional cells

developmental plasticity diversity of mature cell types to which

stem cells can give rise

embryonic stem cells

totipotent - have potential to develop into any type of fully
differentiated human cell
source - cells of very early embryo

pluripotent can develop into any type of cell in the embryo

source - cells of inner cell mass of embryo

adult stem cells - undifferentiated cells in tissues of adults

multipotent - bone marrow producing several blood cell types
5-64
unipotent most limited plasticity - only epidermal cells produced

Tissue Repair
regeneration - replacement of dead or damaged
cells by the same type of cell as before
restores normal function
skin injuries and liver regenerate

fibrosis - replacement of damaged cells with scar

tissue
holds organs together
does not restore normal function
severe cuts and burns, healing of muscle injuries, scarring of
lungs in tuberculosis
5-65

Wound Healing
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

severed blood vessels bleed

into cut
mast cells and damaged
cells release histamine
dilates blood vessels
increases blood flow to area
makes capillaries more
permeable

1 Bleeding into the wound

blood plasma seeps into the

wound carrying:

Figure 5.33 (1)

antibodies
clotting proteins
blood cells
5-66

Wound Healing
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

blood clot forms in the

tissue
loosely knitting edges of cut
together
inhibits spread of pathogens
from injury site to healthy tissue

Scab
Blood clot
Macrophages
Fibroblasts

forms scab that temporarily

seals wound and blocks
infection
macrophages phagocytize
and digest tissue debris

Leukocytes

2 Scab formation and

macrophage activity

Figure 5.33 (2)

5-67

Wound Healing
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

new capillaries sprout from

nearby vessels and grow
Scab
into wound
deeper portions become
infiltrated by capillaries and
fibroblasts
transform into soft mass
granulation tissue
macrophages remove the
blood clot
fibroblasts deposit new
collagen
begins 3-4 days after injury
and lasts up to 2 weeks

Macrophages
Fibroblasts

Blood
capillary
Granulation
tissue

3 Formation of granulation tissue

(fibroblastic phase of repair)

Figure 5.33 (3)

5-68

Wound Healing
surface epithelial cells
around wound multiply and
migrate into wound area
beneath scab

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

epithelium regenerates
connective tissue
undergoes fibrosis
scar tissue may or may not
show through epithelium
remodeling (maturation)
phase begins several
weeks after injury and may
last up to two years

Epidermal
regrowth
Scar tissue
(fibrosis)

4 Epithelial regeneration and connective

tissue fibrosis (remodeling phase of repair)

Figure 5.33 (4)

5-69

Tissue Shrinkage and Death

atrophy shrinkage of a tissue through a loss in cell
size or number
senile atrophy through normal aging
disuse atrophy from lack of use (astronauts)

necrosis premature, pathological death of tissue due to

trauma, toxins, or infections
infarction sudden death of tissue when blood supply is cut off
gangrene tissue necrosis due to insufficient blood supply
decubitus ulcer bed sore or pressure sore
pressure reduces blood flow to an area
a form of dry gangrene

gas gangrene - anaerobic bacterial infection

apoptosis - programmed cell death

normal death of cells that have completed their function and best
serve the body by dying and getting out of the way
5-70

Tissue Engineering
tissue engineering artificial production of
tissues and organs in the lab for implantation in
the human body
framework of collagen or biodegradable polyester fibers
seeded with human cells
grown in bioreactor (inside of mouse)
supplies nutrients and oxygen to growing tissue

skin grafts already available

research in progress on heart valves, coronary arteries,
bone, liver, tendons
human outer ear grown on back of mouse and recent
replacement of urinary bladder wall sections
5-71

Tissue Engineering
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Figure 5.34
5-72

Stem Cell Controversy

possible treatment for diseases caused by
loss of functional cell types by embryonic
stem cells
cardiac muscle cells, injured spinal cord, insulinsecreting cells

skin and bone marrow stem cells have been

used in therapy for years
adult stem cells have limited developmental
potential
difficult to harvest and culture
5-73