MANUFACTURING

TECHNOLOGY

By,
ARVIND PASUPARTHY
1021310090
MECHANICAL-B
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THE CASTING PROCESS

Casting the forming technology that fascinates the world

CASTING-TERMINOLOGY
Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is
usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the
desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also
known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to
complete the process. Casting materials are usually metals or various
cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components
together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is
most often used for making complex shapes that would be otherwise
difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.
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HISTORY OF CASTING
Human being has first encountered with metals back in 5,000-6,000
B.C. when people were processing natural gold/silver/copper by hand
beating. Thus, the very first processing method of metals was forging.
The prideful Japanese sword could be said as the most advanced forging
technology in the world.
The start of casting technology which forms casting by pouring melted
metal into a mold and solidifying it, origins back to around 3,600 B.C.
at Mesopotamia. It was approximately 5600 years before from today.
Back then, bronze was melted and poured into a mold.
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On a papyrus from about 1500 B.C. of Egypt, we can see a drawing

of people using their legs on bellows to send air (figure:-1). By
inventing bellows, human being has achieved to obtain higher
heating technology. This was how the Bronze Age arrived. By the
way, the melting point of bronze is approximately 800 with Cu25%Sn. Considering casting, it could be assumed that the melting
temperature could have been exceeded 1000 deg C.
For modern cast iron, there are two significant developments.One
of it is the manufacturing method of spheroidal graphite cast iron
based on inoculation technology which was developed by G. F.
Meehan and O. Smalley in 1940s. By this technology, it became
possible to produce high strength cast iron with tensile strength
more than 300N/mm2 stably.The second is spheroidal graphite cast
iron which was discovered by Morrogh in England back in 1947.
By this discovery, the manufacturing of cast iron with even higher
strength of more than 800N/mm2 realized.

Figure 1: Casting of bronze door (BC1500)

SAND-MOULD CASTING
Sand casting, the most widely used casting process,
utilizes expendable sand molds to form complex
metal parts that can be made of nearly any alloy.
Because the sand mold must be destroyed in order to
remove the part, called the casting, sand casting
typically has a low production rate. The sand casting
process involves the use of a furnace, metal, pattern,
and sand mold. The metal is melted in the furnace
and then ladled and poured into the cavity of the sand
mold, which is formed by the pattern. The sand mold
separates along a parting line and the solidified
casting can be removed.

Figure 2: Casting mold-opened

Sand casting is used to produce a wide variety of metal components with

complex geometries. These parts can vary greatly in size and weight, ranging
from a couple ounces to several tons. Some smaller sand cast parts include
components as gears, pulleys, crankshafts, connecting rods, and propellers.
Larger applications include housings for large equipment and heavy machine
bases. Sand casting is also common in producing automobile components, such
as engine blocks, engine manifolds, cylinder heads, and transmission cases.
The process of sand casting can be classified as,
1) Mold-making - The first step in the sand casting process is to create the mold
for the casting. In an expendable mold process, this step must be performed for
each casting. A sand mold is formed by packing sand into each half of the mold.
The sand is packed around the pattern, which is a replica of the external shape of
the casting. When the pattern is removed, the cavity that will form the casting
remains. Any internal features of the casting that cannot be formed by the
pattern are formed by separate cores which are made of sand prior to the
formation of the mold. Further details on mold-making will be described in the
next section. The mold-making time includes positioning the pattern, packing
the sand, and removing the pattern. The mold-making time is affected by the
size of the part, the number of cores, and the type of sand mold. If the mold type
requires heating or baking time, the mold-making time is substantially increased.
Also, lubrication is often applied to the surfaces of the mold cavity in order to
facilitate removal of the casting. The use of a lubricant also improves the flow
the metal and can improve the surface finish of the casting. The lubricant that is
used is chosen based upon the sand and molten metal temperature.

Figure 3: Casting mold-closed

2) Clamping - Once the mold has been made, it must be prepared for the molten metal to be poured. The surface of the mold
cavity is first lubricated to facilitate the removal of the casting. Then, the cores are positioned and the mold halves are closed
and securely clamped together. It is essential that the mold halves remain securely closed to prevent the loss of any material.
3) Pouring - The molten metal is maintained at a set temperature in a furnace. After the mold has been clamped, the molten
metal can be ladled from its holding container in the furnace and poured into the mold. The pouring can be performed manually
or by an automated machine. Enough molten metal must be poured to fill the entire cavity and all channels in the mold. The
filling time is very short in order to prevent early solidification of any one part of the metal.
4) Cooling - The molten metal that is poured into the mold will begin to cool and solidify once it enters the cavity. When the
entire cavity is filled and the molten metal solidifies, the final shape of the casting is formed. The mold can not be opened until
the cooling time has elapsed. The desired cooling time can be estimated based upon the wall thickness of the casting and the
temperature of the metal. Most of the possible defects that can occur are a result of the solidification process. If some of the
molten metal cools too quickly, the part may exhibit shrinkage, cracks, or incomplete sections. Preventative measures can be
taken in designing both the part and the mold and will be explored in later sections.
5) Removal - After the predetermined solidification time has passed, the sand mold can simply be broken, and the casting
removed. This step, sometimes called shakeout, is typically performed by a vibrating machine that shakes the sand and casting
out of the flask. Once removed, the casting will likely have some sand and oxide layers adhered to the surface. Shot blasting is
sometimes used to remove any remaining sand, especially from internal surfaces, and reduce the surface roughness.
6) Trimming - During cooling, the material from the channels in the mold solidifies attached to the part. This excess material
must be trimmed from the casting either manually via cutting or sawing, or using a trimming press. The time required to trim
the excess material can be estimated from the size of the casting's envelope. A larger casting will require a longer trimming
time. The scrap material that results from this trimming is either discarded or reused in the sand casting process. However, the
scrap material may need to be reconditioned to the proper chemical composition before it can be combined with non-recycled
metal and reused.

CASTING TERMS
1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which
the mold is formed. Depending upon the position of the flask in the
molding structure, it is referred to by various names such as drag lower
molding flask, cope upper molding flask, cheek
intermediate
molding flask used in three piece molding.
2.
Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold
cavity is made with the help of pattern.
3. Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks
that makes up the mold.
4.
Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its
permeability to air or gases. It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and
moisture in
appropriate proportions.

Figure 4: Casting

5.
Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled
on the inner surface of the mold cavity to give a better surface finish
to the castings.
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 6. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used
to create openings and various shaped cavities in
the castings.
7. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the
molten metal is poured.
8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches
the mold cavity. In many cases it controls the flow
of metal into the mold.
9. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the
gate.
10. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
11. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care
of its own weight and overcome the metallostatic
force.
12. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks
and solidifies. Also known as feed head.
13. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.
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PATTERN
The pattern is the principal tool during the casting
process. It is the replica of the object to be made
by the casting process, with some modifications.
The main modifications are the addition of pattern
allowances, and the provision of core prints. If the
casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called
cores are used to create these cavities in the
finished product. The quality of the casting
produced depends upon the material of the
pattern, its design, and construction. The costs of
the pattern and the related equipment are
reflected in the cost of the casting. The use of an
expensive pattern is justified when the quantity of
castings required is substantial.

Figure 5: Wooden pattern

for a cast-iron gear with
curved spokes

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Functions of the Pattern

1.
A pattern prepares a mold cavity for
the purpose of making a casting.
2.
A pattern may contain projections
known as core prints if the casting requires
a core and need to be made hollow.
3.
Runner, gates, and risers used for
feeding molten metal in the mold cavity
may form a part of the pattern.
4.
Patterns properly made and having
finished and smooth surfaces reduce
casting defects.
5.
A properly constructed pattern
minimizes the overall cost of the castings.

Figure 6: A typical pattern

attached with gating and
risering system

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Pattern Material
Patterns may be constructed from the following materials. Each material has its own advantages, limitations, and field of
application. Some materials used for making patterns are: wood, metals and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and
rubbers, wax, and resins. To be suitable for use, the pattern material should be:
1.

Easily worked, shaped and joined

2.

Light in weight

3.

Strong, hard and durable

4.

Resistant to wear and abrasion

5.

Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions

6.

Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity

7.

Available at low cost

The usual pattern materials are wood, metal, and plastics. The most commonly used pattern material is wood, since it is
readily available and of low weight. Also, it can be easily shaped and is relatively cheap. The main disadvantage of
wood is its absorption of moisture, which can cause distortion and dimensional changes. Hence, proper seasoning and
upkeep of wood is almost a pre-requisite for large-scale use of wood as a pattern material.
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Pattern Allowances
Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional characteristics of the
casting. Thus, when the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the sizes
specified in the finished component drawing so that a casting with the particular
specification can be made. The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce
machining costs and avoid rejections. The allowances usually considered on patterns and
core boxes are as follows:
A.

Shrinkage or contraction allowance

B.

Draft or taper allowance

C.

Machining or finish allowance

D.

Distortion or camber allowance

E.

Rapping allowance
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A. Shrinkage or contraction allowance

All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on cooling. The metal
shrinkage is of two types:
i.
Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes
from liquid state to solid state at the solidus
temperature. To account for this
shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the mold
ii.
Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses
temperature in solid state. To account for this,
shrinkage allowance is
provided on the patterns.
The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material. For example steel
contracts to a higher degree compared to aluminum. To compensate the solid shrinkage,
a shrink rule must be used in laying out the measurements for the pattern.
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A shrink rule for cast iron is 1/8 inch longer per foot than a standard
rule. If a gear blank of 4 inch in diameter was planned to produce out of
cast iron, the shrink rule in measuring it 4 inch would actually measure
4 -1/24 inch, thus compensating for the shrinkage. The various rate of
contraction of various materials are given in Table 1.

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B. Draft or Taper Allowance

By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern
maker on all vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it
can be removed from the sand without tearing away
the sides of the sand mold and without excessive
rapping by the molder. Figure 3 (a) shows a pattern
having no draft allowance being removed from the
pattern. In this case, till the pattern is completely
lifted out, its sides will remain in contact with the
walls of the mold, thus tending to break it. Figure 3
(b) is an illustration of a pattern having proper draft
allowance. Here, the moment the pattern lifting
commences, all of its surfaces are well away from
the sand surface. Thus the pattern can be removed
without damaging the mold cavity
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Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the sand job. But in
general inner details of the pattern require higher draft than outer
surfaces. The amount of draft depends upon the length of the vertical
side of the pattern to be extracted; the intricacy of the pattern; the
method of molding; and pattern material. Table 2 provides a general
guide lines for the draft allowance

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C. Machining or Finish Allowance

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