Human Health and Disease

Health
Health is a state of complete physical, mental
and social well-being, and not merely an absence
of disease, or infirmity.

 Our health can be affected by

Genetic disorders
Infections
Our life style

 How to achieve Good Health?

Hygienic balanced diet
Clean drinking water
Personal and community hygiene
Regular physical exercise
Knowledge about diseases and their
effects on the body
Immunisation against infectious diseases
Proper disposal of wastes
Control of vectors.

 Advantage of Good Health

More efficient at work
Productivity increases
Brings economic prosperity
Increases longevity
Reduces infant and maternal
mortality

 Awareness of Good Health

Balanced diet
Personal hygiene
Regular exercise
Domestic hygiene
Environmental cleanliness
Awareness about diseases
Vaccination
Maintenance of hygienic food and
Water resources

Disease
When the functioning of one or more organs
or systems of the body is
adversely affected, characterised by various
signs and symptoms, we say
that we are not healthy, i.e., we have a
disease.
The disease causing organisms are called
pathogens.(or)
Any physical or functional change from the
normal state that causes discomfort, or
disability, or impairs the health of a living
organism may be called a disease.

Diseases

Infectious

Noninfectious

S.no Infectious diseases

1

Non-infectious diseases

These are easily transmitted These are not

from one infected person to

transmitted from one

the other.

person to the other.

Such diseases are due to

Extrinsic as well as

extrinsic factors, i.e.,

intrinsic factors, like

pathogens.

deficiencies and
hereditary factors, can
cause these diseases.

Public health and personal

Public health and

hygiene reduces the

personal hygiene are

probability of disease.

ineffective.

For example, HIV tetanus,

For example, cancer.

hepatitis-B

 Viral Diseases
a) Common cold :
) It is caused by Rhinoviruses.
) These viruses infect the nasal and respiratory
passages, but not the lungs.
) Its symptoms include:
I. Nasal congestion and discharge,
II. Sore throat,
III. Cough,
IV. Headache,
V. Tiredness,
VI. Hoarseness
) It lasts for 3-7 days
) It spreads by
I. Droplet released during cough and sneezing by an
infected person and
II. Contaminated objects/articles.

 Bacterial Diseases
a) Typhoid.
) It is caused by Salmonella typhi.
) The infection is by contaminated food and
water.
) The pathogen enters the small intestine and
then the other parts through body fluids.
) The symptoms include:
I.Sustained high fever(103 - 104 F)
II.Stomach pain
III.Loss of appetite
IV.Constipation and
V.Headache
) Intestinal perforation leading to death may
occur in severe cases.

 Pneumonia
It is caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and
Haemophilus influenzae.
They infect the alveoli of lungs, where the alveoli
become filled with a fluid resulting in severe difficulty
in breathing/respiration.
The symptoms include:

Fever
Headache
Cough and
Chills
- In severe cases the lips and fingernails may
turn grayish to bluish
- Infection is by,
Droplets from infected person and
Sharing the contaminated articles

6. Protozoan Diseases.
i) Malaria.
It is caused by different species of Plasmodium,
which are P.malariae, P.vivvax and P.falciparum.
The infection is through the bite of female
Anopheles mosquito, that transfers the sporozoites
of Plasmodium
The life-cycle of the pathogen is as follows:
The sporozoites enter the body, reach the liver
through blood and multiply within the liver cells.
Such liver cells burst and release the parasites into
blood.
Then they attack RBCs, multiply and cause their
rupture.
The rupture of RBCs is associated with the release of
a toxin called haemozoin, which is responsible for the
high recurring fever and the chill/shivering.

 Sexual stages develop in the red blood cells.

The parasite then enters the female Anopheles
mosquito along with the blood when it bites the
infected person.
Further development occurs in the stomach wall of
the mosquito
The gametes fuse to form a zygote
The zygote undergoes further development in the
body of the mosquito to form sporozoites.
Sporozoites are transported to and stored in the
salivary glands of mosquitoes and are transferred
to a human body during the bite of the mosquito.
Treatment involves the use of chloroquines
The disease can be controlled by eradicating the
mosquitoes and avoiding mosquito bite by using
mosquito repellents, mosquito nets, etc.,

ii) Amoebic Dysentery (Amoebiasis)

- It is caused by Entamoeba histolytica
- Infection is through contaminated food
and water
- Its symptoms include:
> Abdominal pain and cramps
> Stools with excess mucus and blood
clots.
> Constipation alternating with diarrhoea.
- Houseflies act as mechanical carries and
transfer the parasite from the faeces of
infected person to the food articles and
water.

7. Fungal Diseases.
> Ringworms.
- These are caused by fungi like
Microsporum, Epidermophyton and
Trichophyton.
- The symptoms include
. Dry scaly lesion on skins, nails
and scalp
. Lesions are accompanied by
itching
. Ringworms are generally
acquired from soil or by direct contact

8. Helminthic Diseases.
i) Ascariasis.
- It is caused by Ascaris lumbricoides.
- Its symptoms include:
> Blockage of intestinal passage
> Anaemia
> Abdominal/muscular pain
> Internal bleeding
> Nausea and headache.
- Infection is through contaminated
vegetables, fruits and water as eggs of
parasite excreted by the infected persons
contaminate soil, plants and water.

ii) Filariasis/Elephantiasis.
- It is caused by Wuchereria bancrofti
and Wuchereria malayi
- They normally cause inflammation
of the organs in which they live for
many years.
- They normally affect the lymph
vessels of the lower limbs
- Genital organs may also be affected
leading to gross deformation.
- Female Culex mosquito is the
vector.

9. Prevention and Control of Infectious

Diseases.
The following practices can
prevent/control most of the infectious
diseases:
- Maintenance of personal hygiene
- Maintenance of public hygiene
- Eradication of vectors and their
breeding places.
- Vaccination and immunisation for
diseases like polio, diphtheria,
tetanus, etc.,

 Immunity
Immunity
Innate
Immunity

Acquired
Immunity
Active
Immunity

Passive
Immunity

i) Innate Immunity
-

Innate immunity refers to all the

defence elements with which an
individual is born and is always
available to protect the body.
It is non-specific.
It consists of the following barriers:
Physical Barriers: They include the skin and
the mucus-coated epithelium of respiratory,
gastro-intestinal and urino genital tracts,
where the mucus helps in trapping the
microbes.
Physiological Barriers: * acidiy of the
stomach
* lysozyme in saliva,

 Cellular Barriers: They include the following

specialised cells, which phagocytose and
destroy the microbes:
Natural killer lymphocytes
Neutrophils
Monocytes
Macrophages
Cytokine Barriers: Interferons produced by
the viral infected cells protect the noninfected cells from viral infection.
ii) Acquired Immunity.
- Acquired immunity refers to the immunity a
person acquires after birth, either by contracting
the disease or by vaccination.
- It is pathogen-specific

 It has the following characters:

Specificity: It has the ability to distinguish
many different foreign molecules.
Memory: When the immune system
encounters a pathogen for the first time, it
develops an immune response by which
the pathogen is eliminated; it also retains
some memory cells which evoke a
heightened immune response in the
further encounters.
a) Humoral Immunity
It consists of the antibodies, that are
circulating in the body fluids.
The antibodies produced by Blymphocytes in response to the
antigens are collectively called

 Each antibody consists of four polypeptide

chains, held together in the form of Y, where
the tips of the two upper arms bind to the
antigens in a lock and key manner to form
antigen-antibody complex.
Two of the polypeptide chains are long and
called heavy (H) chains, while the other two are
short and called light (L) chains; hence the
antibody is referred to as H2L2.
b) Cell Mediated Immunity
> It is mediated by T-lymphocytes.
> There are two groups of T-lymphocytes :
i) Cytotoxic/Killer T-cells, which kill the
specific target cell by a variety of
mechanisms.
ii) Helper T-cells, which activate the

 Acquired immunity can also be

classified into the following two types:
Active immunity
Passive immunity

 The differences between them

Active Immunity
i)

When the antibodies

are developed by our
own cells in response
to the antigens, it is
called active
immunity.

Passive Immunity
i)

ii)
ii)

When antibodies developed in

other vertebrates in reponse
to deliberate injection of
antigen, are injected into our
body, it constitutes passive
immunity.
It is used when the immune
response has to be faster.

It takes time to
develop immunity.

iii) It stays for longer

period.
e.g. i) Immunity
developed during
natural exposure to
pathogens.
ii) Immunity

iii) It stays for short period.

e.g. i) Immunity given to the
infant by antibodies in
colostrum
ii) Immunity given by tetanus
antitoxin.

11. Immune Response

The primary immune response refers
to the immunity mounted as a result
of the first encounter of the animal
with an antigen; it takes relatively
longer time to develop, is feeble and
declines rapidly.
The secondary immune response
refers to the immune response
produced by the memory cells in a
subsequent encounter of the animal
with the same antigen; it results in a
heightened immune response in a

12. Vaccination and Immunisation

The principle of vaccination and
immunisation is based on the
property called memory of the
immune system.
The vaccine generates antibodies
that neutralise the toxin/ pathogen
and also produces memory B-cells
and T-cells, which recognise the
pathogen in subsequent encounters
and produce antibodies.
If a quick immune response is
needed as in tetanus infection,

Antitoxin is injected into the patient;

this type of immunisation is called
passive immunisation.
Recombinant DNA technology has
allowed the production of antigenic
polypeptides of the pathogen in
other microbes like yeast and
bacteria, e.g., hepatitis-B vaccine is
produced using yeast cells
13. Allergy.
Allergy can be defined as the
exaggerated or hypersensitive

 The substance/agent which causes the

hypersensitive reaction of the immune
system, is called an allergen, e.g., dust
mites, pollen grains, animal dander
etc.
The antibodies produced in response
to allergens are IgE type.
The common symptoms of allergy are
sneezing
Water eyes
Rashes
Running nose and
Difficulty in breathing

 These symptoms are produced due to

release of histamine and serotonin from
the mast cells.
Drugs like antihistamine, adrenaline and
steroids quickly reduce the symptoms of
allergy.
14. Autoimmunity.
Autoimmune diseases are those disorders
caused when the bodys immune system
goes off the track and starts destroying
self cells and molecules.
e.g. Hashimotos thyroiditis, Systemic
lupus, Rheumatoid arthritis, etc.

15. Immune system.

The main function of immune system is
to recognise the foreign molecules,
respond to them and keep a memory
of them.
It also plays a role in
Organ transplantation
Allergic reactions and
Autoimmune diseases.
Immune system consists of
i) Lymphoid organs
These are the organs where the origin,
and/or maturation and proliferation of
lymphocytes take place

 Lymphoid organs can be classified into

two groups
Primary lymphoid organs
Secondary lymphoid organs
Primary lymphoid organs are those
where the immature lymphocytes
undergo maturation/differentiation
into antigen-specific lymphocytes,
e.g., Bone marrow and thymus.
Secondary lymphoid organs are
those where the lymphocytes
interact with the antigen and
proliferate to form a clone, e.g.,
spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils,
appendix and payers patches of

ii) Bone Marrow.

* It is the main lymphoid organ where all
types of blood cells including lymphocytes
are formed.
* Bone marrow provides the
microenvironment for the development and
maturation of B-lymphocytes.
iii) Thymus.
* Thymus is located beneath the chest bone
near the heart.
* This gland keeps reducing in size with age.
* It provides the microenvironment for the
development and maturation of Tlymphocytes.

iv) Spleen.
* It mainly contains lymphocytes and
phagocytes.
* It acts as a filter of the blood by
trapping blood-borne microbes.
* It is also a reservoir of erythrocytes.
v) Lymph Nodes.
* Lymph nodes are small solid
structures, found at different points
along lymphatic system.
* They act as filters and trap the
microbes that have entered the lymph.

 Antigens trapped in them active the

lymphocytes present in the lymph
nodes and produce an immune
response.
vi) Mucosal-Associated Lymphoid
Tissues (MALT)
* Lymphoid tissue located within the
mucosal lining of the major tracts is
called mucosal-associated lymphoid
tissue.
* In accounts for about 50% of the
lymphoid tissue in a human body.

16. AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)

a) General account
- It was first reported in 1981.
- It is caused by Human Immunodeficiency
Virus (HIV), which is a retrovirus.
- Transmission of HIV occurs in one or more of
the following ways
> By sexual contact with the infected person.
> Transfusion of contaminated blood and
blood products.
> Sharing infected needles.
> From infected mother to the child through
the placenta.

 The following individuals are at high

risk of getting the disease:
Those who have multiple sexual
partners.
Drug addicts taking the drugs
intravenously.
Individuals who require repeated blood
transfusion.
Children born to an infected woman.
b) Life Cycle of HIV.
- The virus after getting into the body of a
person, enters the macrophages.
- The RNA replicates and DNA is formed by

-The viral DNA gets incorporated with

the host cell DNA and directs the
infected cell to produce virus particles.
-The macrophages continue to produce
virus particles.
- The virus then enters the helper Tlymphocytes (TH), replicates and forms
progeny viruses.
- The progeny viruses released in the
blood attack other helper T-lymphocytes
and there is a progressive decrease in
the number of helper T-lymphocytes in
the body of the infected persons.

 The person becomes easily infected

by bacteria like Mycobacterium,
viruses and even parasites like
Toxoplasma.
The person is unable to protect
himself/herself against any infection.

c) Prevention of AIDS.
- National AIDS Control Organisation
(NACO) and non-governmental
organisations are trying their best to
educate people about AIDS.
- World Health Organisation has
started a number of programmes to
prevent spreading of HIV infection;
some such steps include :
i) ensuring use of disposable
needles and syringes.
ii) checking blood for HIV

iii) free distribution of condoms

and advocating safe sex.
iv) controlling drug abuse.
v) promoting regular check-up for
HIV in susceptible populations, etc.
- AIDS is diagnosed by ELISA
(Enzyme-linked Immuno sorbant
Assay) test.
- Treatment with anti-retroviral drugs
is only partially effective; they can
only prolong the life of the patient
and cannot prevent death.

17. Cancer
- Transformation of normal cells into
cancerous cells is induced by
carcinogens.
- Carcinogens are those physical,
chemical and biological agents which
bring about uncontrolled proliferation
of cells.
- Carcinogens are of the following
types:
i) Physical carcinogens, e.g., UV
rays, X rays, gamma rays.

ii) Chemical carcinogens, e.g., aniline dyes,

chemicals present in tobacco smoke.
iii) Tumour viruses
* The cancer cells differ from the normal
cells int the following ways:
i) There is breakdown of the regulatory
mechanisms which control normal cell
growth, division and differentiation.
ii) Cancer cells do not show contact
inhibition, and show uncontrolled divisions.
iii) Cancer cells show metastasis, e.e., they
detach from the tumours and move to
distant sites through body fluids and develop
secondary tumours.

* Tumours are of two types:

i)Benign Tumours.
They remain confined to their original
location and do not spread to other
parts; they cause little damage.
ii) Malignant Tumours.
> They are masses of
neoplastic/proliferating cells, which
grow rapidly, invade and damage the
surrounding normal tissues/cells.
> These cells compete with the
normal cells for vital nutrients and
disrupt the normal metabolism.

b) Diagnosis of Cancer.
-Cancer can be detected by:
i) biopsy and histopathological studies of the
tissue.
ii) blood and bone marrow tests for increased
cell counts as in leukaemia.
iii) use of techniques like radiography, magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) and computed
tomography(CT) for cancer of internal organs.
iv) use of antibodies against cancer-specific
antigens.
v) applying principles of molecular biology to
detect genes in individuals with inherited
susceptibility to certain cancers.

c) Treatment of Cancer.
- The following one or more methods in
combination can help to treat cancer:
i) Surgery. The tumour cells are
surgically removed to reduce the load of
cancerous cells.
ii) Radio therapy. The tumour cells are
irradiated wholly but taking care of the
surrounding normal cells.
iii) Chemotherapy. Certain drugs are
used to kill the cancerous cells; but
majority of the drugs have side effects
like hair loss, anemia, etc.

18. Drug Abuse.

* The drugs that are commonly abused
include opioids, cannabinoids, cocaalkaloids, barbiturates, amphetamines,
benzodiazepines and lysergic acid
diethylamide (LSD).
a) Kinds of Drugs.
i) Opioids.
> These are the drugs which bind
to opioid receptors in the central
nervous system and gastrointestinal
tract, e.g., morphine and heroin.

Morphine is obtained from the latex

of poppy plant (Papaver
somniferum)
It is a sedative and pain-killer, used
to reduce pain after surgery.
Heroin is chemically diacetyl
morphine; it is a bitter, white,
odourless, crystalline compound
obtained by acetylation of morphine.
Heroin is generally taken by
smoking and injection; it is a
depressant and slows down the
body functions.

ii) Cannabinoids.
*These are a group of chemicals, which interact
with cannabinoid receptors present mainly in the
brain.
*Natural cannabinoids are obtained from the
inflorescence/flower top of Cannabis sativa.
* The active component of cannabinoids is delta-9tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).
* Marijuana, hashish, ganga and charas are also
produced by various combinations of flower tops,
leaves and resin of Cannabis plant.
* These are taken by inhalation and oral ingestion;
they affect the cardiovascular system of the body.
* They are abused by sportspersons in recent
times.

iii) Coca Alkaloids/Cocaine.

*It is obtained from Erythroxylon coca.
*Cocaine interferes with the transport
of the neurotransmitter, dopamine.
* It is usually taken by smoking.
*It has a potential stimulating action
on the central nervous system and
produces a sense of euphoria and
increased energy; excessive dosage
causes hallucinations.

iv) Hallucinogens.
*Products from plants like Atropa
belladona and Datura spp. Are
hallucinogenic.
*LSD (Lysergic acid Diethylamide) is
obtained from a fungus.
v) Tobacco.
*Tobacco is usually chewed or
smoked or used as snuff.
*It contains mainly nicotine, which is
a stimulant and toxin.

 Nicotine stimulates the adrenal gland

to release adrenaline and nonadrenaline which increase the blood
pressure and heart rate.
Smoking of tobacco increases the
chances of lung cancer, bronchitis,
emphysema, coronary heart diseases
cancer of throat, gastric ulcer, cancer
of urinary bladder, etc.
Smoking of tobacco also increases the
carbon monoxide content of blood and
reduces concentration of haem-bound
oxygen, thus causing oxygen deficiency

vi) Alcohol.
- Alcohol is a depressant.
- It affects the central nervous system.
b) Addiction and Dependence.
- Following are the causes of
drug/alcohol abuse:
i) curiosity
ii) need for adventure
iii) excitement
iv) experimentation
v) to escape from stress and

- With repeated use of drugs/alcohol,

the tolerance level of the receptors in
our body increases and consequently
they respond only to higher doses of
drugs/alcohol.
- If the regular dose of drugs/alcohol
is abruptly discontinued, the body
manifests characteristic and
unpleasant withdrawal symptoms,
which can be anxiety, nausea,
sweating, etc.

c) Effects of Drug/Alcohol Abuse.

- The immediate effects of
drugs/alcohol abuse are manifested
as reckless behaviour, vandalism and
violence.
- Excess doses can lead to coma and
death due to cerebral haemorrhage,
respiratory and heart failure.
- A combination of drugs or their
intake with alcohol leads to death.

- The most common warning signals of

drug/alcohol abuse include:
i) Drop in academic performance.
ii) Lack of interest in personal hygiene
iii) Withdrawal and isolation from family
and friends.
iv) Aggressive and rebellious behaviour.
v) Lack of interest in hobbies.
vi) Change in sleeping and eating habits.
vii)Fluctuations in weight, etc.

- When the drug is taken intravenously, it can

lead to infections like AIDS and hepatitis.
- Use of alcohol during adolescene can lead to
heavy drinking in adulthood.
- Chronic use of drugs and alcohol damages
central nervous system and liver.
- Misuse of anabolic steroids causes the
following in females:
i) Masculinisation
ii) Increased aggressiveness
iii) Mood swings.
iv) Abnormal menstrual cycles
v) Excess hair growth on the face and body.
vi) Enlargement of clitoris
vii) Deepening of voice, etc.

- Misuse of anabolic steroids causes

the following in males:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)

Acne
Increased aggressiveness
Depression
Reduction in size of testicles
Decreased sperm production
Potential for kidney and liver
dysfunction
vii)Premature baldness
viii)Enlargement of prostate glands
ix) Enlarged breasts, etc.

d) Prevention and Control.

- Following are some of the measures for
prevention and control of alcohol/drugs:
i) Avoid undue peer pressure.
ii) Educating and counseling to face problems
and stresses and to accept failures and
disappointments as part of life.
iii) Seeking help from parents and peers, could
help to vent their feelings of anxiety and guilt.
iv) Looking for danger signals would help in
initiating proper remedial steps or treatment.
v) Seeking professional and medical help for
de addiction and rehabilitation would help
individuals to come out of the problem
completely.