Scientific English

The nature of scientific

English

Scientific English is impersonal,

objective, formal, direct and precise.
Degrees of objectivity and formality
differ from topic to topic
This depends on the authors
perception and purpose.

Specific features of
scientific discourse

Use of impersonal/objective
language
Use of passive constructions
Scientific /formal vocabulary
Direct style
Precision
Logical organization

 Use

of language

Many linguistic devices are used

to
achieve
objectivity
and
formality in scientific discourse

These devices include the following:

Use of impersonal passive
Formal/technical words
Direct language
Techniques of precision

Use of passive construction

Most important linguistic device that makes

scientific English impersonal and objective.
It is generally used to describe scientific
experiments, rules, procedures and processes.
Example
Active

We can change a solid into liquid by heating

Passive

A solid can be changed into a liquid by heating

Active

We must not allow water to come into contact

with sodium

Passive
Water must not be allowed to come into contact with
sodium

Scientific/formal
vocabulary

Only use formal words and technical

terms.
Informal and casual words in
scientific writing are not used.

Example

Starting from around seven centuries ago,

scientists were busy doing experiments with
a variety of things. They were trying to find a
way for changing cheap and readily available
metals like copper into costly and expensive
gold. In these experiments, they tried all the
methods they knew- mixing, heating and
separating materials. They could not succeed
in making gold. However in the process, they
created a wealth of information, which help
to increase our vision of nature.

Doing conducting, things substances,

way method, changing converting,
costly precious, created generated,
increase develop, vision understanding

Direct language
Scientific language is concerned
with the description, narration,
explanation and analysis of facts.
For this it uses direct language in
order to avoid confusion.
There is no scope for artificial
eloquence, ornamentation,
exaggeration or any other literary
devices.

Passage A

A computer is an electronic data processing

device, which has memory to store data, ability
to process data into meaningful information and
ability to perform fast and accurate calculations.
It consists of input devices, output devices and a
central processing unit (CPU).The input device
which includes keyboard and floppy disk drives,
convert information to data and send it to the
CPU for further processing. The output devices
include Visual display unit (VDU) and printers.
The information that has been entered by the
user using the input devices can be viewed on
the VDU. Printers are used to get the out put
from the computer. The CPU includes the
control unit, the memory unit and the
arithmetic/logic unit. The information/data is
received by the control unit and is sent to the
memory unit for storing. Finally the control unit
sends the data from the memory unit to the logic
unit.

Passage B

Friends and comrades, the light has gone out

of our lives and there is darkness everywhere.
I do not know what to tell you and how to say
it. Our beloved leader Bapu as we called him,
the father of the nation, is no more. Perhaps I
am wrong to say that. Never the less, we will
not see him again as we have seen him for
past these years. We will not run to him for
advice and seek solace from him, and that is a
terrible blow, not to me but to millions and
millions in this country. And it is very difficult
to soften the blow by any other advice that I
or anyone else can give you.

Observation

Passage A
Matter of fact description giving an account
of different components of a computer.
Present tense and passive voice is used.
Direct in style and no ornamental language is
used.
Passage B
Different style altogether.
Charged with emotion
Aim is not to give information but to appeal to
the emotions of the audience.
Has repetition of words and parts of
sentences.

Techniques of precision

Scientific writing is not only factual and

objective, it is also precise and to the point.
The various techniques that could be used
to make a passage precise are:
Avoiding repetition or restatement
Separating essential from non-essential
points
Separating details and supporting points
from main ideas
Using appropriate transitional and linking
devices
Logically organizing information
Using appropriate grammatical features
Using appropriate words and phrases
Avoiding wordiness
Ensuring unity and coherence in writing

Organization

Science involves facts and scientific

writing is always purposive.
All scientific compositions are
organized and logically structured.
They reflect unity and coherence.

Unity and coherence in

scientific English

A writing which does not have unity

distracts the reader and ceases to be
purposive.
It is important to examine different
ways of ensuring unity in writing.
Those ways are:
contd..

Unity of theme

Make sure that the composition is

about a single theme.
This enables the writer to examine an
aspect of a topic in some detail.
Focusing on a single aspect of the
topic helps the writer unfold the
theme logically.
Any scientific article should have only
one controlling idea or theme

Unity in a paragraph

Each paragraph should deal with

on theme.
No paragraph should be allowed to
lead the reader away from the
controlling idea.
Each Para should strengthen the
main idea by contributing only to
that aspect of the topic.

Sense of direction
Every scientific composition should
have a sense of direction.
There should be no digression.
The main idea should be not
sidelined or forgotten.
Clarity
There should be clarity of thought
Clarity of expression.

Completeness

The most important factor to

ensure unity is completeness.
Every scientific composition should
have all three main parts i.e. the
introduction, the body and the
conclusion.

Coherence

Shows a logical relationship between the

elements and the construction.
Unity is concerned with singleness,
coherence is concerned with relatedness.
That is how the words, the sentences and
the paragraphs are connected.
One word in a sentence leads to another,
one sentence should lead to another and
one paragraph in a composition should lead
to another.
Many linking devices (connectives) are
employed to achieve the effect of coherence
and to achieve a logical progress of ideas in
the text.

Connectives

Following types are used to show

relation in scientific English:
Subordinators [because, after, as,
although, etc. ]
Coordinators [but, and, yet, or, nor,
etc.]
Sentence
connectors
[moreover,
however, therefore, for example, etc.]

Subordinators

Shows additive relation: also, as well, besides.

Indicates cause/effect: so, so that, such that,
because of, as a result of, because, since, in
consequence of
Shows comparison : as, like, as if, as though
Shows contrast : although, while, though,
whereas
Indicates temporal relation : as, after, before,
since, till, until, when, while, as soon as, by
the time
Expresses condition : if, provided that, unless
Exemplifies : namely, such as

Coordinators

Shows additive relation : and, or, nor

Shows contrast : yet, but

Sentence Connectors

Shows additive relation: moreover, in addition, next,

likewise, then, furthermore, additionally, finally,
alternatively
Exemplifies: that is, for example, in other words, as an
example.
Indicates cause/ effect: hence, for that reason,
therefore, as a result, as a consequence, thus,
consequently, as follows, accordingly.
Shows comparison: similarly, also. Likewise, too,
correspondingly
Shows contrast: on the other hand, in contrast, by
comparison, on the contrary, however, nevertheless,
conversely.
Shows Conclusions: to conclude, in conclusion, in
summary, to sum up, to summarize.
Shows sequence: first, finally, first of all, secondly, next,
second, third, thirdly, last, lastly, finally

Example:
The atmosphere is an insulating blanket, which
protects the earth; it softens the intense light and heat
of the sun. Its ozone layer absorbs most of the very
deleterious ultraviolet rays from the sun and thus
protects living organisms from extinction.
The atmosphere is bound to the earth by gravity.
Satellites like the moon, which have low gravitational
power, cannot or do not hold an atmosphere.
The atmosphere is composed of various gases and
water vapour, and in its uppermost reaches, it is
charged with subatomic particles. Water vapour is
present in the lower atmosphere; say up to 12 km, in
the concentration ranging from 0.01% to 1 %.
Although, the amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere is very small, its importance is very great,
for without vapour in the atmosphere, there would be
no water on earth.
The connectives used in the above passage
connect the phrases and sentences together and
show a logical relation between them.
Thus ensuring order and continuity of thought.

 Paragraph

Structure

Any piece of writing is divided into

paragraphs.
A paragraph may be defined as a
piece of writing, with one controlling
theme or central idea.
In
scientific
compositions,
the
paragraphs have a logical structure,
The sentences in the paragraphs are
logically and thematically linked to
each other.

Read the following paragraph:

Heating the substance increases the
energy of its molecules. In a solid the
molecules of atoms are arranged in a
regular lattice in three dimensions, and
heating leads to an expansion of the lattice
resulting in the increase of the distance
between the molecules. In a liquid, heating
leads to easier flow and thinning down,
or a decrease in the viscosity. In a gas, the
increase in kinetic energy of the molecules
upon heating increases the pressure of the
gas inside a closed container.

The information in the paragraph is

organized in the form of cause and effect
relationship.
Sentence 1 introduces the topic, which is the
effect of heating substances.
Sentence 2, 3, 4 describes the effect of
heating, on a solid, a liquid and gas.
Thus, each paragraph contains a topic
sentence
that
introduces
the
central/controlling idea of the paragraph.
This sentence is generally placed at the
beginning of the paragraph.
However, sometimes it may be placed either
at the end or in the middle of the paragraph.

Read the following passage:

Vehicular pollution causes serious health
problems.
Carbon monooxide, nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons emitted by motor vehicles trigger
off a complex chain reaction resulting in
dangerous pollutants such as ozone, aldehydes
and ketones. The prolonged inhalation of
carbon monooxide present in the toxic fumes
reduces carbon carrying capacity of the blood,
and many cause headache, sickness and even
death. Likewise, unburned fragments of
hydrocarbons help to form smog and thicken
the atmosphere with elements that may cause
cancer.

Graphite is a soft black substance with atoms

hexagonally arranged in parallel sheets. Each sheet is
only loosely bound one to another.. In diamond, on the
other hand, atoms are so tightly bound to one another
that it makes it the hardest known substance. Another
important difference between diamond and Graphite
is that of electrical conductivity.
Diamond is a
non - conductor
while graphite conducts in the
direction parallel to the hexagonal sheets. If fact these
two elementary forms of carbon , diamond and
graphite, have very different properties.
Topic sentence in the first paragraph is placed in the
beginning.
Topic sentence in the second paragraph is placed in
the end.
In both the cases topic sentence is developed and
supported by specific details.

Paragraph development and

thematic organization

A paragraph can be developed in a number of

ways.
This depends on the theme and purpose.
The two most important methods of paragraph
development generally employed in scientific
writing are Description and Narration.
The aim is not merely to describe or narrate
things.
It is primarily to analyze and explain.
Facts,
principles,
processes,
methods,
materials or ideas.
This is done by applying various techniques of
exposition.
Exposition means to explain something or to
make it clear.

The techniques of exposition

include the following:
Definition
Generalization
Exemplification
Classification
Comparison and contrast
Explanation
Instruction
Analysis
Interpretation

Logical Organization
There are various ways of logically
organizing information in a passage.
General to specific general points are
followed by specific points or details.
Specific to general specific details
followed by general statement
More important to less important
information is organized according to
importance.
Less important to more important
Chronological events are organized in
the order in which they occur in time.

General to Specific

All matter occupies space. The space

occupied by a quantity of matter is
called its volume, and this is usually
measured in cubic meters or cubic
centimeters .Solids have a definite
volume and shape, liquids have a
definite volume and no shape; the
latter takes on the shape of the
container in which they are kept.
Gases have no definite volume and
no shape

Specific to General

Gasoline, kerosene and diesel oil provide

fuel for automobiles, tractors, trucks,
aircrafts and ships. Fuel oil and natural
gas are used to heat home s and
commercial
buildings.
Petroleum
products are used in the manufacture of
synthetic fibers, and in plastics, paints,
fertilizers,
insecticides,
soaps
and
synthetic rubber. Moreover, fuels that are
derived from petroleum supply more than
half of the worlds total supply of energy.
In
fact,
petroleum
is
enormously
important
from
an
economic,
technological and social standpoint.

More important to less important

Two pieces of platinum foil were
connected to a battery. One piece was
connected to the positive terminal and
the other to the negative. They were then
placed in blue copper sulphate solution
contained in a beaker. A test tube was
filled with the solution and fixed over the
anode. When the current was switched
on, it passed from the anode to the
cathode through the solution. It was seen
that the blue solution of copper sulphate
gradually became paler and decomposed
as the electric current passed through
them.

Less important to more important

The internet gives each of us the option
to be a publisher of our information and
ideas. In addition, as the number of
people on it multiplies, and the
commerce transforms the internet, the
opportunities are getting larger. The
internet, in fact, has added a new
dimension to our existence by placing
within easy reach an overwhelming
range of information. It has changed
life as few things have done.

Chorological
The space age began on October4, 1957, when
Russia launched Sputnik1 into orbit. This was
followed a month later by Spurtnik2 which
carried the dog Laika. However, the first US
satellite. Explorer1 did not follow until January
31, 1958, but its instruments made the first
major discovery of the space age- the Van Allen
radiation belts around the earth, where
electrons and protons from the sun are trapped
by the earths magnetic field. Soon after, probes
were sent to explore the moon and the planets,
and on the way, they detected their solar wind of
sub-atomic particles streaming from the sun.