Joining Processes &

Equipment

Chapter 30
Fusion Welding Processes

Fusion Welding Processes

Oxyacetylene Flame Types

Figure 30.1 Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting
operations: (a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing, flame. The gas
mixture in (a) is basically equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene. (d) The principle of the oxyfuelgas welding operation.

Oxyacetylene Torch

Figure 30.2 (a) General view of and (b) cross-section of a torch used in oxyacetylene welding. The
acetylene valve is opened first; the gas is lit with a spark lighter or a pilot light; then the oxygen
valve is opened and the flame adjusted. (c) Basic equipment used in oxyfuel-gas welding. To
ensure correct connections, all threads on acetylene fittings are left-handed, whereas those for
oxygen are right-handed. Oxygen regulators are usually painted green, and acetylene regulators
red.

Pressure-Gas Welding Process

Figure 30.3 Schematic illustration of the pressure-gas welding process; (a) before, and (b) after.
Note the formation of a flash at the joint, which can later be trimmed off.

Arc-welding Processes
The process involves:
A consumable electrode.
A non consumable electrode.
An AC or a DC power supply produces an arc between
the tip of the electrode and the workpiece to be welded.
The arc generates temperatures of about 30,000C,

Non consumable-electrode

Non consumable-electrode
the electrode is typically a tungsten electrode.
An externally supplied shielding gas is
necessary to prevent oxidation of the weld zone.
Typically, direct current is used.
Its polarity (the direction of current flow) is
important.

polarity
Straight polarity:
Also known as direct-current electrode negative (DCEN).
The workpiece is positive (anode), and the electrode is
negative (cathode).
DCEN generally produces welds that are narrow and deep.
Reverse polarity:
Also known as direct-current electrode positive (DCEP).
The workpiece is negative and the electrode is positive.
Weld penetration is less, and the weld zone is shallower
and wider.

Shielded-Metal Arc Welding

Figure 30.7 Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc

welding process. About 50% of all large-scale industrial welding
operations use this process.
Figure 30.8 A deep weld showing the buildup sequence of eight
individual weld beads.

Heat Transfer in Arc Welding

The heat input in arc Welding is given by the equation.

Where H is the heat input (] or BTU),

I is the Weld length,
V is the voltage applied,
I is the current (amperes),
v is the welding speed.
The term e is the efficiency of the process and varies from around 75% for shielded
metal-arc welding to 90% for gas metal-arc welding and submerged-arc Welding.

The heat input given by Eq. (30.3) melts a certain volume of material, usually the
electrode or filler metal, and can also be expressed as

where u is the specific energy required for melting,

V," is the volume of material melted,
A is the cross section of the Weld

Electrode Designations

Electron Beam Welding

In electron-beam welding (EBW), developed in the
1960s, heat is generated by high velocity narrowbeam electrons. The kinetic energy of the
electrons is converted into heat as they strike the
workpiece. The process requires special
equipment to focus the beam on the workpiece,
typically in a vacuum.
The higher the vacuum, the more the beam
penetrates, and the greater is the depth-to-width
ratio; thus, the methods are called EBW
EBW-HV (for high vacuum) and EBW-MV (for
medium vacuum); some materials also may also
be welded by EBW-NV (for no vacuum).

Welded Joints

Figure 30.27 Examples of welded joints and their terminology.

Weld Symbols

Figure 30.28 Standard identification and symbols for welds.

Weld Design

Figure 30.29 Some design guidelines for welds. Source: After J.G. Bralla.

Weld Quality

Porosity(the state of being

porous).
Slag inclusions.
Incomplete Fusion and
Penetration
Weld Profile
Cracks

Cold Welding
In cold welding (CW), pressure is applied to the
workpieces through dies or rolls.
During the joining of two dissimilar metals that are
mutually soluble.
Brittle intermetallic compounds may form (Section 4.2.2);
these will produce a weak and brittle joint.

Friction Welding
Figure 31.3 (a) Sequence of operations in
the friction welding process: (1) Left-hand
component is rotated at high speed. (2) Righthand component is brought into contact under
an axial force. (3) Axial force is increased;
flash begins to form. (4) Left-hand component
stops rotating; weld is completed. The flash
can subsequently be removed by machining
or grinding.

Figure 31.4 Shape of the fusion zones in

friction welding, as a function of the axial force
applied and the rotational speed.

Friction Stir Welding

Figure 31.4 The principle of the friction stir welding process. Alluminum-alloy plates
up to 75 mm (3 in.) thick have been welded by this process.

Spot Welding

Figure 31.6 (a) Sequence of events

in resistance spot welding. (b)
Cross-section of a spot weld,
showing the weld nugget and the
indentation of the electrode on the
sheet surfaces. This is one of the
most commonly used processes in
sheet-metal fabrication and in
automotive-body assembly.