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State Minimization
State machines may contain redundant states, i.e. states whose
function can be accomplished by other states.
State minimization is the transformation of a given machine into an
equivalent machine with no redundant states.
Removal of redundant states is important because
Cost: the number of memory elements is directly related to
the number of states
Complexity: the more states the circuit contains, the more
complex the design and implementation becomes
Aids failure analysis: diagnostic routines are often
predicated on the assumption that no redundant states exist
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2-equivalent
0- and 1-successor of (BDF): (FB), (DBC)
Since (DB) and (C) are not contained in a
single block of P1: (BDF) must be split into (BD) and (F), and so on
Since P3 = P4: P3 is the equivalence partition
Equivalence Partition
If Pn = Pn+1, i.e. next partition is same as
Theorems
Theorems
Machine Equivalence
Two machines, M1 and M2, are said to be equivalent if and only if, for every
state in M1, there is a corresponding state in M2, and vice versa
The machine that contains no equivalence states and is equivalent to M is
called the minimal, or reduced, form of M
Example:
Machine M1
Machine M1*
Machine M2
Machine M2
P0 = (ABCDEFGH)
P1 = (ACGH)(BDE)(F)
P2=(AH)(CG)(BDE)(F)
P3 = (AH)(CG)(BDE)(F)
The outputs produced by Si and Sj are the same, when both are specified
The next states Sk and Sl are compatible, when both are specified.
not compatible.
Both reduced machines cover M4: thus reduced machines are nonunique
States A and B of M4 are compatible, C and D are also compatible, so are
A and E. However, B and E are 1-distinguishable, hence incompatible:
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thus compatibility relation is not an equivalence relation
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Merger Table
Merger table: more convenient alternative to the merger graph
Example: Machine M8
Merger table
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Set of maximal compatibles indicates that M8 can be covered by a fourstate machine, but not by a two-state machine
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a d iff
a d and
ce
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Implication Chart
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Implication Chart
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Implication Chart
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N.S.
PS
X=0
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
E
C
I
H
I
E
H
C
F
OUTPU
X=1
T
E
1
E
1
H
0
A
1
F
0
G
0
B
1
D
0
B
1
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
E-C
E-H
E-A
E-H
E-B
E-F
E-B
x
x
PS
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
N.S.
X=0 X=1
F,0
B,0
F,0
G,0
C,0
G,0
A,1
B,0
E,0
D,0
A,0
B,0
F,1
B,0
Prepared by Shiraz Husain
Differences
CSM
ICSM
Subsets of
compatibles may be
overlapping.
Merger Graph
Merger graph of an n-state machine M is an undirected graph defined as
follows:
1. It consists of n vertices, each of which corresponds to a state of M
2. For each pair of states (SiSj) in M, whose next-state and output entries are
not conflicting, an undirected arc is drawn between vertices Si and Sj
3. If, for a pair of states (SiSj), the corresponding output symbols under all
input symbols are not conflicting, but the successors are not the same, an
interrupted arc is drawn between Si and Sj, and the implied pairs are
entered in the space
Example: Machine M6
Merger graph
Nine compatible pairs: (AB), (AC), (AD), (BC), (BD), (BE), (CD), (CF), (EF)
Set of maximal compatibles: {(ABCD), (BE), (CF), (EF)} complete polygons
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Closed Covering
Example (contd.): Closed covers:
{(AD), (BE), (CF)}
{(AB), (CD), (EF)}
Closed covering is not unique
Aim is to find a closed covering that with a minimum number of compatibles
Set of all maximal compatibles: clearly a closed covering
This defines an upper bound on the number of states in the machine
that covers the original one:
The upper bound is meaningless when the number of maximal
compatibles is larger than the number of states in the original
machine
For the example: the lower bound is 2 and upper bound 4
Thus, a closed covering with three compatibles defines a minimal
machine
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Compatibility Graph
Compatibility graph: a directed graph whose vertices correspond to all
compatible pairs, and an arc leads from (SiSj) to (SpSq) if and only if (SiSj)
implies (SpSq)
Example: Machine M7
Merger graph
Compatibility graph
A subgraph of the compatibility graph is closed: if, for every vertex in the
subgraph, all outgoing arcs and their terminating vertices also belong to it
If every state of the machine is covered by at least one vertex of the
subgraph: then the subgraph forms a closed covering
{(BC), (AD), (BE)}; {(AC), (BC), (AD), (BE)}; {(DE), (BC), (AD), (BE)}
Minimal machine
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