Tissues and Histology

Tissues - collections of similar cells and the substances

surrounding them
Tissue classification based on structure of cells,
composition of noncellular extracellular matrix, and cell
function
Major types of adult tissues
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
Histology: Microscopic Study of Tissues
Biopsy: removal of tissues for diagnostic purposes
Autopsy: examination of organs of a dead body to
determine cause of death

Embryonic Tissue

3 major germ layers that form the embryonic disc (source of stem cells)
Endoderm
Inner layer
Forms lining of digestive tract and derivatives
Mesoderm
Middle layer
Forms tissues as such muscle, bone, blood vessels
Ectoderm
Outer layer
Forms skin and neuroectoderm

I. Epithelial Tissue
Cellularity - Consists almost
entirely of cells
Covers body surfaces, lines
hollow organs, and forms glands
Outside surface of the body
Lining of digestive, respiratory
and urogenital systems
Heart and blood vessels
Linings of many body cavities

Polarity - Has apical, basal, and

lateral surfaces
Rests on a basement membrane
Specialized cell contacts bind
adjacent cells together
Avascular - no blood vessels
Regenerative -Replaces lost
cells by cell division

Functions of Epithelia
Protecting underlying structures; e.g.,
epithelium lining the mouth
Acting as barriers; e.g., skin
Permitting the passage of substances;
e.g., cells lining air sacs in lungs and
nephrons in kidney
Secreting substances; e.g., pancreatic
cells
Absorbing substances; e.g., lining of
stomach and small intestine

Special Characteristics of
Epithelia

Figure 4.1

Classification of
Epithelium
Number of layers of cells
Simple- one layer of cells. Each extends
from basement membrane to the free
surface
Stratified- more than one layer.
Pseudostratified- tissue appears to be
stratified, but all cells contact basement
membrane so it is in fact simple

Shape of cells
Squamous- flat, scale-like
Cuboidal- about equal in height and width
Columnar- taller than wide

Classifications of Epithelia

Simple Squamous
Epithelium

Figure 4.3a

Simple Cuboidal
Epithelium

Figure 4.3b

Simple Columnar
Epithelium

Figure 4.3c

Pseudostratified Ciliated
Columnar Epithelium

Figure 4.3d

Stratified Epithelia

Contain two or more layers of cells

Regenerate from below
Major role is protection
Are named according to the shape of
cells at apical layer

Stratified Squamous
Epithelium
Description
Many layers of cells squamous in
shape
Deeper layers of cells appear cuboidal
or columnar
Thickest epithelial tissue adapted for
protection

Stratified Squamous
Epithelium
Specific types
Keratinized contain the protective
protein keratin
Surface cells are dead and full of keratin

Non-keratinized forms moist lining of

body openings

Stratified Squamous
Epithelium
Function Protects underlying tissues
in areas subject to abrasion
Location
Keratinized forms epidermis
Non-keratinized forms lining of
esophagus, mouth, and vagina

Stratified Squamous
Epithelium

Figure 4.3e

Transitional Epithelium

Figure 4.3h

Epithelium: Glandular
A gland is one or more cells that makes and
secretes an aqueous fluid
Two types of glands formed by infolding of
epithelium:
Endocrine: no contact with exterior of body; ductless;
produce hormones (pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas)
Exocrine: open to exterior of body via ducts (sweat, oil)

Exocrine glands classified either by structure or by

the method of secretion
Classified by structure
Unicellular: goblet cells
Multicellular: sweat, oil, pituitary, adrenal

Multicellular Exocrine
Glands

Classified on the basis of

types of ducts or mode of
secretion
Types of ducts
Simple: ducts with few
branches
Compound: ducts with
many branches
If ducts end in tubules
or sac-like structures:
acini. Pancreas
If ducts end in simple
sacs: alveoli. Lungs

Lateral Surface Features

Tight junctions
Desmosomes
Gap junctions

Membrane Junctions: Tight

Junction

Integral proteins of

adjacent
cells fuse together
Completely encircle the
cell
and form an adhesion
belt.
Form an impermeable
junction.

Lateral Surface Features

Cell Junctions
Desmosomes two disc-like plaques
connected across intercellular space
Plaques of adjoining cells are joined by
proteins called cadherins
Proteins interdigitate into extracellular
space
Intermediate filaments insert into
plaques from cytoplasmic side

Membrane Junctions:
Desmosome
Linker proteins extend from
plaque like teeth of a zipper.
Intermediate filaments
extend across width of cell.

Common in superficial layers of skin; skin

peels after a sunburn

Reduces chance of tearing, twisting,
stretching

Figure 3.5b

Membrane Junctions: Gap

Junction

Connexon proteins are

transmembrane proteins.
Present in electrically
excitable

Basal Feature: The Basal

Lamina
Noncellular supporting sheet between the
epithelium and the connective tissue deep to
it
Consists of proteins secreted by the
epithelial cells
Functions:
Acts as a selective filter, determining which
molecules from capillaries enter the epithelium
Acts as scaffolding along which regenerating
epithelial cells can migrate

Basal lamina and reticular layers of the

underlying connective tissue deep to it form
the basement membrane

Epithelial Surface Features

Apical surface features
Microvilli finger-like extensions of
plasma membrane
Abundant in epithelia of small intestine and
kidney
Maximize surface area across which small
molecules enter or leave

Cilia whip-like, highly motile extensions

of apical surface membranes
Movement of cilia in coordinated waves

Connective Tissue
Most diverse and abundant tissue
Main classes

Connective tissue proper

Cartilage
Bone tissue
Blood

Characteristics
Mesenchyme as their common tissue of origin
(mesenchyme derived from mesoderm)
Varying degrees of vascularity
Nonliving extracellular matrix, consisting of
ground substance and fibers
Cells are not as abundant nor as tightly packed
together as in epithelium

Connective Tissue: Embryonic

Origin

Figure 4.5

Functions of Connective Tissue

Enclose organs as a capsule and
separate organs into layers. Areolar
Connect tissues to one another. Tendons
and ligaments.
Support and movement. Bones.
Storage. Fat.
Insulation. Fat.
Transport. Blood.
Protection. Bone, cells of the immune
system.

Structural Elements of Connective

Tissue
Ground substance unstructured
material that fills the space between
cells
Fibers collagen, elastic, or reticular
Cells fibroblasts, chondroblasts,
osteoblasts, hematopoietic stem
cells, and others

Connective Tissue Cells

Fibroblasts - secrete the proteins needed for fiber
synthesis and components of the extracellular matrix
Adipose or fat cells (adipocytes). Common in some
tissues (dermis of skin); rare in some (cartilage)
Mast cells. Common beneath membranes; along
small blood vessels. Can release heparin, histamine,
and proteolytic enzymes in response to injury.
Leukocytes (WBCs). Respond to injury or infection
Macrophages. Derived from monocytes (a WBC).
Phagocytic; provide protection
Chondroblasts - form cartilage
Osteoblasts - form bone
Hematopoietic stem cells - form blood cells
Undifferentiated mesenchyme (stem cells). Have
potential to differentiate into adult cell types.

Extracellular Matrix - ECM

ECM has 3 major components
1. Protein fibers
Fluid

2. Ground substance

3.

Protein fibers
Collagen fibers. Composed of the protein collagen.
Strong, flexible, inelastic; great tensile strength
(i.e. resist stretch). Perfect for tendons, ligaments
Elastic fibers. Contain molecules of protein elastin
that resemble coiled springs. Returns to its original
shape after stretching or compression. Perfect for
lungs, large blood vessels
Reticular fibers. Formed from fine collagenous
fibers; form branching networks (stroma). Fill
spaces between tissues and organs.

Ground Substance
Interstitial (tissue) fluid within which are one or more
of the molecules listed below:
Hyaluronic acid: a polysaccharide. Very slippery;
serves as a good lubricant for joints. Common in
most connective tissues.
Proteoglycans: protein and polysaccharide
complex. Polysaccharides called
glyocosaminoglycans (chondroitin sulfate, keratin
sulfate). Protein part attaches to hyaluronic acid.
Able to trap large amounts of water.
Adhesive molecules: hold proteoglycan
aggregates together. Chondronectin in cartilage,
osteonectin in bone, fibronectin in fibrous
connective tissue.
Functions as a molecular sieve through which
nutrients diffuse between blood capillaries and cells

Embryonic Connective
Tissue
Mesenchyme: source
of all adult connective
tissue.
Derived from mesoderm
Delicate collagen fibers
embedded in semifluid
matrix

Mucus: found only in

the umbilical cord.
Whartons jelly.

Areolar Connective Tissue

Figure 4.12b

Adipose Tissue

Figure 4.12c

Reticular Connective
Tissue

Figure 4.12d

Dense Irregular Connective

Tissue

Figure 4.12e

Dense Regular Connective

Tissue

Figure 4.12f

Elastic Connective Tissue

Bundles and sheets of collagenous and elastic

fibers oriented in multiple directions
In walls of elastic arteries (aorta), lungs, vocal
ligaments
Strong, yet elastic; allows for recoil of tissue
after being stretched

Connective Tissue:
Cartilage
Composed of chondrocytes (cells) located in matrix-

surrounded spaces called lacunae.

Type of cartilage determined by components of the
matrix.
Firm consistency.
Ground substance: Proteoglycans and hyaluronic acid
complexed together trap large amounts of water
(microscopic sponges). Allows tissue to spring back
after being compressed.
Avascular and no nerve supply. Heals slowly.
Perichondrium. Dense irregular connective tissue
that surrounds cartilage. Fibroblasts of perichondrium
can differentiate into chondroblasts (cartilageforming cells)
Types of cartilage
Hyaline
Fibrocartilage
Elastic

Hyaline Cartilage

Figure 4.12g

Elastic Cartilage

Figure 4.12h

Fibrocartilage

Figure 4.12i

Bone Tissue

Figure 4.12j

Blood Tissue

Figure 4.12k

Muscle Tissue
Characteristics
Cells are referred to as fibers
Contracts or shortens with force when
stimulated
Moves entire body and pumps blood
Types
Skeletal:attached to bones
Cardiac: muscle of the heart.
Smooth: muscle associated with
tubular structures and with the skin.
Nonstriated and involuntary.

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Figure 4.14a

Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Figure 4.14b

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Figure 4.14c

Nervous Tissue

Figure 4.15

Tissues and Aging

Cells divide more slowly
Collagen fibers become more irregular in structure,
though they may increase in number
Tendons and ligaments become less flexible and more fragile

Elastic fibers fragment, bind to calcium ions, and

become less elastic
Arterial walls and elastic ligaments become less elastic

Changes in collagen and elastin result in

Atherosclerosis and reduced blood supply to tissues
Wrinkling of the skin
Increased tendency for bones to break

Rate of blood cell synthesis declines in the elderly

Injuries dont heal as readily