EQUIPMENT FOR X- &

GAMMA RAY
RADIOGRAPHY

EM SPECTRUM

Generation of X-Rays
Electron
stream

e
Target atom

Scattered
electron

e
X-rays

Three
requirements

basic

A source of electrons
a heated filament

Hot
Bod
y

A means of directing
and accelerating the
electrons
a high voltage supply

High positive
charge
++
++
++
++

A
target
for
the
electrons to bombard
Catho
a heavy metal
de

Anode
electron
s

Mechanism of X-ray
Production
When the target is bombarded with
high-speed electrons, two kinds of
interactions occur, thus producing
two type of X-rays.
Characteristic X-rays
Continuous or Bremsstrahlung X-rays

Generation of characteristic
X-ray
Higher energy
ring

Lower energy
ring

High-speed
electron

++
++
++

Xray

Generation of continuous Xray

Higher energy
ring

Lower energy
ring

++
++
++
-

High-speed
electron

Xray

X-ray Spectrum

X-ray Equipment
X-ray
comprises
elements:

equipment
three
main

X-ray
X-ray
tube
tube

Regulat
Regulat
ors
ors

An X-ray tube:
Emit radiation;

Transformers:
Convert the mains voltage
and current to the type
required by the X-ray tube;

Regulators:
Control the voltage and
current.

Contr
Contr
ol
ol unit
unit
Transfor
Transfor
mers
mers

X-Ray Tube
Electron
stream

Evacuated glass
envelope

Focusing cup

Copper
anode

Tungsten target

Tungsten filament
X-rays

 An X-ray tube consists of a glass outer casing

which is sealed in a vacuum, inside which there
is:
A positive electrode, the anode, and
A negative electrode, the cathode.

Tube envelope is constructed of glass with a

high melting point to withstand the intense heat
generated at the anode.
A high vacuum environment for the tube
elements is necessary to prevent oxidation of
the electrode materials, to permit ready
passage of the electron beam without ionization
of gas within the tube and to provide electrical
insulation between the electrodes.

 Cathode incorporates a focusing cup and

filament.
The focusing cup functions as a lens to direct
the electrons in a beam towards the anode.
The filament is usually a coil of tungsten wire.
Any change in the voltage applied to the
filament varies the filament current and the
number of electrons emitted.
Anode is a metallic electrode of high
electrical and thermal conductivity. It consists
a button of tungsten, gold or platinum as a
target imbedded in a mass of copper to
conduct much of the heat generated.

X-Ray Tube Cooling

Most of the energy of the high speed
electrons is converted to heat at the
target.
Several methods of cooling the X-ray
tube have been developed.
Cooling by radiating heat
Cooling by liquid
Cooling by air or gas

Tube Head
To prevent X-rays from becoming a hazard
and create scattered radiation problem, the
X-ray tube is shielded with lead (the
window remains unshielded).
The tube head usually contains the X-ray
tube,
high
voltage
and
filament
transformers and insulating oil or gas.
In addition, metal casing is earthed to
reduce possible electrical hazards due to
the high voltage used.

Focal Spot
The focal spot in an X-ray tube is the projected
beam from the focal area of the target which,
when bombarded by electrons, produces the Xrays.
The small focal spot requirement increases the
quality of radiograph by improving the definition.
Cross section
of electron
beam

Focal spot
anticathode

Surface of optical
focus

Tube Window
The X-ray beam emerges from the
tube through a window.
The window is usually made of a less
radiation absorbent material such as
a light metal of low atomic number.
e.g. Beryllium

Duty Cycle
The duty cycle is generally expressed as a
percentage of exposure time versus total time.
100% means continuous service.
50% means that it is necessary to provide equal rest
time after each exposure and so on.
By following the duty cycle as specified for a
particular tube, the life of the X-ray tube can be
lengthened.
Tube life depends on the effectiveness of its cooling.
Tube life can be increased by Preheating (Warm up).

Causes of X-ray Tube

Failures
Mechanical fracture, Mechanical shock
Puncturing
of
glass-electric
spark,
Faulty
mounting, bubbles in glass
Filament burn-out, Excessive current on the
filament, Excessive voltage on the filament
Inverse filament burn-out, Backfiring of tubes
using alternating voltage
Melted focal spot, Excessive loading and time
control failure
Melted anode, Heat storage capacity exceeded
Gassy tube, Tube overloaded or poor out-gassed

Transformers
A transformer is a device for changing
the voltage of alternating current to a
higher or lower voltage.
Generally, two transformers are required
for X-ray equipment.
i.
ii.

The auto transformer

The step-up transformer (high voltage
transformer)
iii. The
step-down
transformer
(filament
transformer)

 The auto transformer (compensator) is used to

change or compensate for incorrect voltages
supplied by commercial sources.
The step-up transformer, also called the high
voltage transformer, will get its power from the
auto transformer and then step it up to the voltage
required on the anode of the X-ray tube.
E.g. step-up transformer will furnish 100 kV from
V

110

The step-down transformer also called the filament

transformer can get its power from the auto
transformer and step it down to the voltage
required on the X-ray tube filament.
E.g. step-down transformer will furnish the 110 V to 10 V
for heating of wire filament.

Transformers for an X-ray

tube
Auto
transformer

Milliammeter

Voltmeter
AC
Main

Choke coil

Filament
transformer

X-ray

X-ray Control Panel

The X-ray control panel houses the
current and voltage controls and meters,
indicating lights, and a timing device.

Tube Voltage
Usually expressed in kV
It determines the penetrating power or
energy of the X-ray
An increase in the tube voltage increases
the speed of the electrons striking the target
Then, produce short wavelength (high
energy) X-rays
Tube voltage can control by adjusting kV
knob on the control panel

Tube Current
Usually expressed in mA
It determines the current flowing
from the cathode to the anode
It is indicated by milli-ammeter on
the control panel
Tube current controls the intensity of
the X-ray beam

Exposure Time
The length of time during which
radiation is emitted is called
exposure time.
It is recorded and controlled by an
interlocked timer on the control
panel

Quantity and Quality of Xrays

Much of the energy of the impinging
electrons is dissipated as heat.
0.1% of the energy of the electron beam is
converted into X-rays in very low voltage
tubes.
The quantity or the intensity of the X-rays
produced depends on the tube current.
The quality or the energy of X-rays
produced depends upon the energy of
electrons striking the target.

Effect of mA and kV on X-ray output

100
kV

2 mA

INTENSITY

INTENSITY

4 mA
50
kV

20
kV
10
kV

WAVELENGTH

WAVELENGTH

Modern X-ray Equipment

Directional X-ray Units
Fully portable
Kilo voltage 100 kV to 400 kV
kV can be varied continuously
or in steps
Tube current - 5 mA to 20 mA
Size of the focal spot - 0.50.5
mm to 44 mm

Modern X-ray Equipment

Panoramic X-ray Units
Normally available up to
300 kV
Emergent beam angle 3600300
Focal spot is elliptical in
shape
Effective focal spot sizes 41, 4.81, 51.5 mm, etc.
Tube current up to 15 mA

Modern X-ray Equipment

Radiographic Linear
Accelerators
For the radiography of thick
samples
X-ray energy in the MeV range
Focal spot size 2.52.5 mm
10 cm steel can be
radiographed in one minute
Beam angles 150, 300, 450,
and 3600
Electron beam current 0.01
mA to 0.25 mA
Max. focal spot diameter is 2
mm

Modern X-ray Equipment

Microfocus X-ray
System
Do not permit large
SFD
Very small focal spot
(0.5 to 0.05 mm)
Tube current maximum 1 mA for
100 kV

Modern X-ray Equipment

Flash X-ray Tubes
Betatron
Microtron

Gamma Ray Equipment

Source Assembly
The source of radiation used in radiography
is extremely small and enclosed used in a
sealed protective metal covering

Type of Radioisotopes
radioisotopes most commonly used
for radiography purposes are Ir-192,
Co 60 and Cs-137.

Selection Criteria for a Gamma ray Source

Activity
o The activity determines the exposure time

Energy
o Energy of Gamma rays from the source must be
sufficient to penetrate the thickness of the
specimen

Half life
o The source should have half-life long enough to
complete the job.

Availability
o The source should be easily available and
preferably at low cost.

Gamma Ray Projectors

Removable Plug Type
Unit
Units of this type are
available with capacities
up to 2 Ci of Co-60 (or
100 Ci of Ir-192).
A conical step plug can
be removed from the
main body when a beam
of radiation is required.
The steps are designed
to avoid streaming

D type Unit
Suitable for pipe radiography (DWSI)
Available with capacities up to 7.5 Ci of Ir-192 or 1 Ci of
Cs-137
The unit can be clamped onto a pipe with the help of a
chain and can also be rotated to any desired position
when required.

Remote control Unit

These units can be operated from a remote distance which
makes them suitable when high activity sources are to be
used.
The source can be pushed out of the shielding container to
a desired position via guide tubes and brought back when
the exposure is completed.

i. Clutch Wire Cable Type

This consist of a shielding container with all

the safety locks and devices, etc.
A remote control system that controls the
movement of the source with the help of a
clutch wire cable

ii. Pneumatic Type

This consists of a shielding container and a

pneumatic remote control system.
The source is pushed out of the container to
the exposure site by a compression stroke
and sucked back into the container by a
suction stroke

Common Sources Used For

Industrial Radiography
Cobal
t
Co60

Radiu
m
Ra226

Cesiu
m
Cs137

Iridiu
m
Ir-192

Half-life

5.3 y

1600 y

30 y

74 d

130 y

30 d

Energy
(MeV)

1.25

1.22

0.66

0.355

0.072

0.053

X-ray
equivalent
(MeV)

2-3

1-2

0.6 1.5

0.3 0.8

0.1 0.3

0.1 - 0.4

Radiation Level
RHM/Curie

1.33

0.83

0.37

0.5

0.0025

0.125

Optimum
thickness range
(mm) of Steel

50200

10-70

2.5-12

2.5-12

Isotope

50-150 20-100

Thuliu
Ytterbi
m
um
TmYb-169
170

Merits and Demerits of X- and Gamma

Rays
Technical
X-Rays
Gamma Rays
Aspect
Power supply

Electrical power
required

No power supply needed

Safety
supervision

Required during
operation

At all time

Weight and
dimensions

Large, bulky and heavy

Relatively light (except Co60)

Manipulation for
Setting up time
source positioning consuming and difficult

Based on manipulation

Radiation hazards

Only during operation

Continuous hazards

Radiation
penetration

Can be adjusted (mat.

& t)

No adjustment for given

source

Radiation
intensity

High

Low

Focal spot

Very fine focal spot

possible

Depends upon the specific

activity

Shape of beam

Unidirectional and
Panoramic

Unidirectional and
Panoramic

THANK
YOU!