Unit-2 EMI

Module 02:
Electrical Instruments
Reference Text books:
1. Basic Electrical Engineering by
D. C. Kulshreshtha
2. A
Course
in
Electrical
&
Electronic
Measurements
&
Instrumentation
by
A.
K.
Sawhney
Measuring
Instruments
Classification
1. Absolute instruments:Gives the magnitude of the quantity in terms
of the constants of the instruments
Example :A tangent galvanometer, measures current in
terms of the tangent of the angle of deflection
produced by the current, radius & no. of turns
of the galvanometer
2. Secondary instruments:These have to be calibrated by comparison

with an absolute instrument
Tuesday, 16 August 2011
Measuring Instruments
Classification of Secondary Instruments

1. Indicating instruments
Ordinary voltmeters, ammeters &
wattmeter's.
2. Recording instruments
X-Y plotter e.g. ECG (Electro-CardioGram).
3. Integrating instruments
Ampere-hour meter, watt-hour (energy)
meter and odometer in a car (which
measures the total distance covered)
Indicating
Instruments
Principle of Operation
Different effects like Magnetic effect,
Thermal effect (thermocouple is
used), Electrostatic effect, Induction
Effect (disc or drum), Hall effect
Essentials of an Indicating Instruments

In order to ensure proper operation of indicating instruments. Three
torque are needed
(i) Deflecting torque It is produced by use of magnetic field, heating,
chemical, electromagnetic or electrostatic effect of current and voltage to
be measured.
(ii) Controlling torque (By Spring or gravity)- It is opposing the
deflecting torque and increases with deflection. It is produced by either
spring or gravity.
for spring control Tc
for gravity control Tc sin
where - deflection
The controlling torque serves two functions : (i) the pointer stops moving
beyond the final deflection, (ii) the pointer comes back to its zero
position when the instrument is disconnected.
(i) Spring Control

Most commonly used.
One or two hairsprings made of phosphor bronze
are used.
The outer end of this spring is fixed to the pointer
and the inner end is attached with the spindle.
When the pointer is at zero of the scale, the
spring is normal.
As the pointer moves, the spring winds and
produces an opposing torque.
The balance-weight balances the moving system
so that its centre of gravity coincides with the
axis of rotation, thereby reducing the friction
between the pivot and bearings.
Sunday, March 22, 2015
Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

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(i) Spring Control

Advantages :
c and d I ; at final position, c d

Hence, I
Since
These instruments have uniform scale.
Disadvantages :
The stiffness of the spring is a function of
temperature.
Hence, the readings given by the instruments are
temperature dependent.
Furthermore, with the usage the spring develops an
inelastic yield which affects the zero position of the
moving system.

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Double Springs
Two springs A and B are wound in opposite
directions.
On deflection, one spring winds while the other
unwinds.
The controlling torque produced is due to the
combined torsions of the two springs.
To make the controlling torque directly
proportional to the angle of deflection, the
springs should have fairly large number of turns.

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Double Springs

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(ii) Gravity Control

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(ii) Gravity Control

A small control weight is attached to the moving
system.
In addition, an adjustable balance weight is also
attached to make the centre of gravity pass
through the spindle.
In zero position of the pointer, this control weight
is vertical.

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When deflected by an angle , the

weight exerts a force,
W sin
The restraining or controlling

torque is thus developed is given as
c W sin L WL sin
Since d I , and c d
or
or
WL sin kI
WL
I
sin
k
I sin

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Disadvantage :
1. These do not have uniform scale.
2. These must be used in vertical position so that
the control may operate properly.
Advantages :
1. Less expensive.
2. Unaffected by changes in temperature.
3. Free from fatigue or deterioration with
time.

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Damping Torque
Due to inertia of the system, the pointer moves ahead to
position A, before coming to rest.
This way the pointer keeps oscillating about its final
steady-state position with decreasing amplitude.
It settles at its final steady-state position when all its
energy is dissipated in friction.
The situation described above is very annoying.
Moreover, for every change in the magnitude of the
quantity being measured, one has to wait for some time.

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Damping Torque

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Damping Torque
The remedy lies in providing a suitable
damping torque.
If over-damped, the time-delay in taking
the reading becomes unnecessarily long.
If under damped, the oscillations of the
pointer would not be killed completely.
Thus, the damping torque should be just
sufficient to kill the oscillation without
increasing the delay-time.
This condition is said to be critically
damped or dead beat.

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Methods for obtaining

Damping Torques
1. Air Friction Damping Torques
2. Fluid Friction Damping
3. Eddy Current Damping (Most
commonly employed method)
MOVING COIL
INSTRUEMNTS
There are two types :
(1)
Permanent Magnet Type : It is
the most accurate and useful for dc
measurements. Popularly known as
dArsonval Movement.
(2) Dynamometer Type : It can be used
for both dc and ac measurements.

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PMMC
It consists of an iron-core coil
mounted on bearings between
permanent magnet
Very fine insulated wire of
many turns is used
Coil is wound on an aluminium
bobbin which is free to rotate
by about 90
An aluminium pointer attached
to the coil can move on a
calibrated scale.
Two springs one at top and
other at bottom were attached
to the assembly and serves
two purposes
One is to provide path for
current and other for providing
controlling torque.

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PMMC
Core is made of soft iron
Magnetic poles & iron core are
cylindrical in shape. This has
two advantages
Firstly, the length of the air gap
is reduced (flux leakage=0)
Secondly, the iron core helps in
making the field radial in the air
gap which ensures uniform
magnetic field throughout the
motion of the coil.
This way the angle of deflection
is proportional to the current in
the coil and hence the scale is
uniform

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PMMC
When a current is passed
through a coil in a magnetic
field, the coil experiences a
torque proportional to the
current.
A coil spring provides the
controlling torque.
The deflection of a needle
attached to the coil is
proportional to the current.
Such "meter movements" are
at the heart of the moving coil
meters such as voltmeters and
ammeters.
Now they were largely replaced
with solid state meters.

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How the Deflection Torque is

Produced

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PMMC
Consider a single turn PQ of the current carrying coil.
The outward current in P set up a counterclockwise
magnetic field.
Thus, the field on the lower side is strengthened and
on upper side weakened.
The inward current in Q, on the other hand,
strengthens the field on the upper side while weakens
it on the lower side.
The coil experience forces F-F.
If d is the width of the coil
F (d / 2) F (d / 2) Fd

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PMMC
Since the force F=NIBL , is directly proportional to the
current I and to the flux density B in the air gap, the net
deflecting
torque=NIBA, Where A = area of the
coil=Ld
d kI
The controlling torque of the spiral springs (with
c as spring constant)
c c
In the final steady position,
k
c d
or
c kI
I
The deflection is proportional to the current and hence thec scale is
uniformly divided
Increasing sensitivity
of PMMC
The coil is suspended by a
phosphor-bronze filament at
the top
A small mirror is attached to
the suspension & a light
beam is thrown on it
Reflected light beam falls on
calibrated scale
When current passed through
the coil , the coil deflect by
an angle and the light beam
rotates by 2 and the beam
moves on the scale.
This way even a small deflection makes the light beam

move over the scale by large distance providing high
PMMC
Advantages :
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
High sensitivity.
Uniform scale.
Well shielded from any stray magnetic field.
High torque/weight ratio.
Effective and reliable eddy-current damping.
Disadvantages :
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Cannot be used for ac measurement.

More expensive compared to moving-iron type.
Ageing of control springs and of the permanent
magnets might cause errors.

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DYNAMOMETER TYPE INSTRUMENTS

For both ac & dc measurements
These instruments are similar to the
permanent magnet type instruments,
except that the permanent magnet is
replaced by a fixed coil.
The coil is divided into two halves,

connected in series with the moving coil.
The two halves of the coil are placed close

together and parallel to each other to
provide uniform field within the range of the
movement of moving coil.
DYNAMOMETER TYPE
INSTRUMENTS
Dynamometer Type
Instruments
The deflecting torque
depends on the fields of both
fixed and moving coils
Deflecting torque is
proportional to square of the
current.
Moving coil is wound using a
thin wire so that it deflects
easily.
Can be used as Voltmeter or
Ammeter
Best suits as a power meter
DYNAMOMETER TYPE-Ammeter &

Voltmeter
Dynamometer Type
WATTMETER
Dynamometer Type Wattmeter
Dynamometer Type
Instruments
Advantages :
(i) Can be used on both DC and AC systems

(ii)No errors due to hysteresis or eddy currents
(iii)Good accuracy
(iv)Same calibration for DC and AC measurements and hence can
be used as Transfer Instruments ( used in situations where you
can not measure directly. The measurement is transferred to
another means of measurement)
Disadvantages :
(i) Non-uniform scale
(ii)Torque/weight ratio is small

(iii)Low sensitivity than PMMC
(iv)More expensive than PMMC
MOVING-IRON INSTRUMENTS
Attraction (or Single-iron) Type

Moving-Iron Instrument
MOVING-IRON INSTRUMENTS
Working of Moving-Iron
Instrument
Repulsion (or Double-Iron) Type MovingIron Instrument
AMMETERS AND
VOLTMETERS
Consider a dArsonval movement having current

sensitivity (CS) of 0.1 mA and internal resistance (Rm)
of 500 .
The full-scale deflection current, Im, for this
instrument is 0.1 mA.
When full-scale current flows, the voltage across its
terminals is given as
Vm I m Rm (0.1 mA) (500 ) 50 mV
So, it can serve either as an ammeter of range 0 - 0.1

mA, or as a voltmeter of range 0 - 50 mV.
We need to extend the range of the meter, by providing
a suitable additional circuitry.

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Ammeters
Connected in series in circuits.
Low impedance (resistance) so as not to
affect the circuit.
Constructed by adding a low resistance (or
shunt or bypass resistor) in parallel with
the meter.
Ammeter

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Ammeters

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The ratio Ifsd/Im = N is called the range-multiplier.


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Since the voltage across the parallel elements must be the

same,
Click
I m Rm ( I fsd I m ) Rsh
I m Rm
Rsh
( I fsd I m )
or
I m Rm
Rm
Rm
Rsh
( I fsd I m ) ( I fsd / I m 1) ( N 1)

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Ammeter Example
An ammeter uses a meter with an internal
resistance of 600 and a rating of 1 mA fsd.
How can it be used to measure 20 A fs?i
m
Maximum current through meter is

0.001 A.
M
R
Therefore, the shunt resistor must

iR
take
19.999
A Because both M and R are in parallel, the same V
must be dropped across both
V = Im Rm = 0.001 A x 600 = 0.6 V
Thus R must be V / IR = 0.6 V / 19.99 A
= 0.03 (in parallel.)
RM
A multi-range ammeter.

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Universal shunt for multi-range milliammeter


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Example 3
An ammeter uses a meter with an internal
resistance of 600 and a rating of 1 mA fsd. How
can it be used to measure 20 A fs?
Im
Solution : Maximum current

through meter is Im = 0.001 A.
Therefore, the shunt resistor must
take Ish = 19.999 A
Rm
Rsh
Ish
Because both M and Rsh are in parallel, the same V

must be dropped across both
Click
V = Im Rm = 0.001 A x 600 = 0.6 V
Thus, Rsh must be V / IR = 0.6 V / 19.999 A
= 0.0300015..
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Ammeter Sensitivity
Measured in ohms/amp; should be as
low /A (small V drop) as possible.
Sensitive ammeters need large
Click
indicator changes for small current.
Example : (1) A 0.01 /A meter with 5 A fsd,
Rm = /A x A = 0.01 x 5 = 0.05
Vmax across the Meter will be
5 A x 0.05 = 0.25 V for fs.
Click
(2) A 0.1 /A meter with 5 A fsd,

will drop 2.5 V (i.e., it is 10 times less
sensitive), which may bias the results.

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Ammeter loading
Significant where ammeters are used in
circuits with components of resistance
comparable to that of the meter.
1.0
+
1.0 V
-
What is the
current in the
circuit ?
Is it
i=1V/1=1A?

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Now, suppose that the meter has a

resistance of 1
How much will be current in the
circuit ?
Obviously, the current in the circuit
Click
will be halved !
When working with low value
resistors, be sure to use very low
impedance ammeters.

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Voltmeters
Connections to circuits and components in parallel.
High impedance (resistance) so as not to affect
circuit.
Constructed by adding a high resistance (R) in
series with an electrically sensitive meter (M).
M
R
Voltmet
er

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Extending the Range of

Voltmeters
Suppose that we want to extend the voltage range of

this basic meter to 0-10 V.

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The total resistance RT must be such that

V I m RT
or
RT
V
10 V
100 k
I m 0.1 mA
Rs RT Rm 100 k 0.5 k 99.5 k
Now, suppose that the range of a basic meter is to be

extended to Vfsd volts. Then, we should have
Vfsd I m ( Rm Rs )
or
Vfsd
Rs
Rm
Im
The series resistor Rs is also called a range-multiplier,

as it multiplies the voltage range.

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Example 4
A meter is rated at 1 mA fsd and has an internal resistance of
2000 . How can it be used to measure 100 V fsd ?
Click
Solution :
1 mA
Rm
Vm = 2 V
Click
Rs
Vs = 98 V
RT = Rs + Rm
Click
Maximum voltage that can be put across galvanometer is

Vm = I Rm = 0.001 x 2000 = 2.0 V
Thus, Vs = VT - Vm = 100 V - 2 V = 98 V
This voltage must be dropped across Rs. Therefore,
Rs = Vs/I = 98 V /Ch.0.001
A = 98 k
18 Electrical Measuring
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54
Voltage Scaling or Multiplying

Factor
It is defined as the number of times the voltage range
is increased. Thus,
Vfsd
Vfsd
n
Vm I m Rm

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Example 5
A 50-A meter movement with an internal

resistance of 1 k is to be used as a dc voltmeter of
range 50 V. Calculate
(a) the multiplier resistance needed, and
(b) the voltage multiplying factor.
Solution : Here, Im = 50 A, and Rm = 1 k.

(a) The series resistance needed is given as
Vfsd
50 V
Rs
Rm
1000 999 k
Im
50A
Click
Click
Vfsd
Vfsd
50
1000
(b) n
6
3
Vm I m Rm 50 10 1 10

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Meter Sensitivity
(Ohms-per-Volt Rating)
Measured in /V.
Higher the sensitivity, more accurate is the measurement.
If current sensitivity (CS) of a meter is known, its /V
rating can easily be determined.
Consider a basic meter with CS of 100 A.
If used as a voltmeter of range 1 V,
RT = 1 V / 100 A = 10 k
Thus, the meter sensitivity is simply 10 k/V.


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In general,
1
ohms - per - volt rating
current sensitivity
Note that if the same meter was used for 2 V range,

the required RT would be 20 k.
Its ohms/volt rating is 20 k / 2 V = 10 k/V.
The ohms-per-volt rating does not depend on the range
of the voltmeter.

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Also, note that the range of a voltmeter (or an

ammeter) is changed by switching in another resistor in
the circuit.
Therefore, for a given range the internal resistance of
the voltmeter remains the same irrespective of the
deflection of the pointer.

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Voltmeter Loading
A voltmeter, when connected, acts as a shunt for that
portion of the circuit.
This reduces the resistance of that portion.
Hence, the meter gives a lower reading.
This effect is called the loading effect of the

meter.

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Example 6
It is desired to measure the voltage across the 50-k

resistor in the circuit.
Two voltmeters are available for this measurement.
Voltmeter-A has a sensitivity of 1000 /V and
voltmeter-B has a sensitivity of 20 000 /V.
Both meters are used on their 50-V range.
Calculate
(a) the reading of each meter, and
(b) the error in each reading, expressed as a percentage
of the true value.

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Solution : The true value of the voltage across A-B,
50 k
Vt 150 V
50 V
100 k 50 k

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(a) Voltmeter-A
The internal resistance,
Click
Ri1 Sensitivity Range (1000 / V) (50 V) 50 k
When connected, the equivalent parallel resistance across A-B

is 50 k || 50 k = 25 k. Hence, reading of voltmeter,
Click
25 k
V1 150 V
30 V
100 k 25 k
Voltmeter-B
Ri 2 Sensitivity Range (20 000 / V) (50 V) 1000 k

RA-B Eq (50 k) || (1000 k) 47.6 k
Click
47.6 k
V2 150 V
48.36 V
100 k 47.6 k

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(b) Error in reading of Voltmeter-A,

Vt V1
50 30
% Error
100 %
100 % 40 %
Vt
50
Click
Error in reading of Voltmeter-B,
Vt V2
50 48.36
% Error
100 %
100 % 3.28 %
Vt
50
Note the voltmeter with higher sensitivity gives more
accurate results, since it produces less loading effect on
the circuit.

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RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT
The instrument is called ohmmeter.

Three types :
1. Shunt-Type Ohmmeter : For low value resistors.

2. Series-Type Ohmmeter : For medium-value
resistors.
3. Meggar-Type Ohmmeter : For high-value
resistances, such as the insulation of a cable.

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Shunt-Type Ohmmeter
When Rx = 0, no current in meter.

When Rx = , entire current flows through the meter.
Proper selection of R1 gives full-scale deflection on open
circuit.

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Series-Type Ohmmeter
RT is pre-set resistor.
R0 is zero-adjust
resistor. It compensate
for the decrease in
battery voltage E with
ageing.
Rs limits the current to
fsd.

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When X-Y shorted, the current is maximum

(fsd).
When X-Y open, the current is zero.
Thus the scale is inverted.
Different ranges are obtained by switching in
different Rs
Caution
Never connect to an energized circuit.
Make sure that there is no parallel branch
across the resistance you are measuring.

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The current and resistance scales.


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Wheatstone Bridge
A clever method to accurately
measure a resistance
R1 and R3 are known
R2 is a variable resistor
Rx is an unknown resistor
R2 is varied until no current flows through the
galvanometer G
Let I1, I2, I3 and Ix be the currents through the four
resistors.
I1 = I2 and I3 = Ix
No current through G: no voltage difference across it
Rx = R3R2/R1
I1R1 = I3R3 and I2R2 = IxRx
Single-Phase Induction Type

Wattmeter/Energy Meter

Unit-2 EMI

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Module 02:

2. Secondary instruments:These have to be calibrated by comparison

Tuesday, 16 August 2011

Classification of Secondary Instruments

Essentials of an Indicating Instruments

(i) Spring Control

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

Sunday, March 22, 2015

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

(i) Spring Control

c and d I ; at final position, c d

These instruments have uniform scale.

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

Sunday, March 22, 2015

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

(ii) Gravity Control

Sunday, March 22, 2015

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

(ii) Gravity Control

Sunday, March 22, 2015

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

When deflected by an angle , the

The restraining or controlling

Sunday, March 22, 2015

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

Sunday, March 22, 2015

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

Sunday, March 22, 2015

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

Methods for obtaining

Sunday, March 22, 2015

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

Sunday, March 22, 2015

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

How the Deflection Torque is

Sunday, March 22, 2015

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

The controlling torque of the spiral springs (with

In the final steady position,

This way even a small deflection makes the light beam

Cannot be used for ac measurement.

Sunday, March 22, 2015

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

DYNAMOMETER TYPE INSTRUMENTS

The coil is divided into two halves,

The two halves of the coil are placed close

DYNAMOMETER TYPE-Ammeter &

Dynamometer Type Wattmeter

(i) Can be used on both DC and AC systems

(ii)Torque/weight ratio is small

Attraction (or Single-iron) Type

Repulsion (or Double-Iron) Type MovingIron Instrument

Consider a dArsonval movement having current

So, it can serve either as an ammeter of range 0 - 0.1

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring

Sunday, March 22, 2015

Ch. 18 Electrical Measuring