Nes Mohan Power Electronics PPT Slides Ch30

DesignofMagneticComponents
Outline
A.
Inductor/TransformerDesignRelationships
B.
MagneticCoresandMaterials
C.
PowerDissipationinCopperWindings
D.
ThermalConsiderations
E.
AnalysisofSpecificInductorDesign
F.
InductorDesignProcedures
G.
AnalysisofSpecificTransformerDesign
H.
EddyCurrents
J.
TransformerLeakageInductance
K.
TransformerDesignProcedures
CopyrightbyJohnWiley&Sons2003
Forclarifications:anoopmathew@ieee.org
Forclarifications:anoopmathew@ieee.oeg
Magnetics1
MagneticComponentDesignResponsibilityofCircuitDesigner
Ratings for inductors and transformers in power
electronic circuits vary too much for commercial
vendors to stock full range of standard parts.
Core
(double E)
Instead only magnetic cores are available in a

wide range of sizes, geometries, and materials as
standard parts.
Circuit designer must design the
inductor/transformer for the particular
application.
Winding
Bobbin
Design consists of:

1. Selecting appropriate core material, geometry,
and size
2. Selecting appropriate copper winding
parameters: wire type, size, and number of
turns.
Assembled
core and
winding
Magnetics2
ReviewofInductorFundamentals
Assumptions
No core losses or copper winding losses
Linearized B-H curve for core with
mo
lm >>g and A >>g2
Magnetic circuit approximations (fux
uniform over core cross-section, no
fringing flux)
Cross-sectional
area of core = A
l m= mean path length
i1
N1
Air gap: Hg
g
Starting equations
Hm lm + Hg g = N I (Amperes Law)
Bm A = Bg A = (Continuity of flux
assuming no leakage flux)
m Hm= Bm (linearized B-H curve) ;
Core: Hm
B
Bs
o Hg = Bg
Results
NI
Bs > Bm = Bg =
= / A
lm/ m+ g/ o
AN 2
LI = N ; L =
lm/ m+ g/ o
B
H
linear region
B
B
=
H
H
Magnetics3
ReviewofTransformerFundamentals
Assumptions same as for
inductor
Starting equations
H1 L m = N1I1 ; H2 L m = N2 I2
(Ampere's Law)
HmL m = (H1 - H2)L m = N1 I1 - N2 I2
mHm = Bm (linearized B-H curve)
d1
d2
v1 = N1
; v2 = N2
dt
dt
(Faraday's Law)
Net flux = 1 - 2 = mHmA
mA(N1I1-N 2I2)
=
Lm
Results assuming m , i.e. ideal core
or ideal transformer approximation.
= 0 and thus N1I1= N2 I2

m
d(1 - 2 )
v1
v2
v1
v2
=0 =
;
=
dt
N1
N2
N1
N2
Cross-sectional
area of core = A
l m= mean path length
i2
i1
+
v1
-
N1
+
v
2
-
N2
2
Magnetic fux
B
Bs
B
H
linear region
B
B
=
H
H
Magnetics4
Current/FluxDensityVersusCoreSize
Larger electrical ratings require larger current I and
larger flux density B.
Core losses (hysteresis, eddy currents) increase
as B2 (or greater)
Winding (ohmic) losses increase as I2 and are
accentuated at high frequencies (skin effect,
proximity effect)
B
Bs
Minor
hystersis
loop
H
To control component temperature, surface area of

component and thus size of component must be
increased to reject increased heat to ambient.
At constant winding current density J and core
flux density B, heat generation increases with
volume V but surface area only increases as V2/3.
Maximum J and B must be reduced as electrical
ratings increase.
Flux density B must be < Bs
- Bs
core
Higher electrical ratings larger total flux

larger component size
Flux leakage, nonuniform flux distribution
complicate design
fringing
flux
Magnetics5
MagneticComponentDesignProblem
Challengeconversionofcomponentoperatingspecs
inconvertercircuitintocomponentdesignparameters.
Goalsimple,easytouseprocedurethatproduces
componentdesignspecsthatresultinanacceptable
designhavingaminimumsize,weight,andcost.
Inductorelectrical(e.g.convertercircuit)
specifications.
InductancevalueL
InductorcurrentsratedpeakcurrentI,ratedrms
currentIrms,andrateddccurrent(ifany)Idc
Operatingfrequencyf.
Allowablepowerdissipationininductoror
equivalentlymaximumsurfacetemperatureofthe
inductorTsandmaximumambienttemperatureTa.
Transformerelectrical(convertercircuit)
specifications.
RatedrmsprimaryvoltageVpri
RatedrmsprimarycurrentIpri
TurnsratioNpri/Nsec
Operatingfrequencyf
Allowablepowerdissipationintransformer or
equivalentlymaximumtemperaturesTsandTa
Designprocedureoutputs.
Coregeometryandmaterial.
Coresize(Acore,Aw)
Numberofturnsinwindings.
ConductortypeandareaAcu.
Airgapsize(ifneeded).
Threeimpedimentstoasimpledesignprocedure.
1. DependenceofJrmsandBoncoresize.
.
2. Howtochoseacorefromawiderangeof
materialsandgeometries.
3. Howtodesignlowlosswindingsathigh
operatingfrequencies.
Detailedconsiderationofcorelosses,winding
losses,highfrequencyeffects(skinandproximity
effects),heattransfermechanismsrequiredforgood
designprocedures.
Magnetics6
CoreShapesandSizes
Magneticcoresavailableinawidevarietyofsizesandshapes.
FerritecoresavailableasU,E,andIshapesaswellaspotcores
andtoroids.
Laminated(conducting)materialsavailableinE,U,andIshapes
aswellastapewoundtoroidsandCshapes.
OpengeometriessuchasEcoremakeforeasierfabricationbut
morestrayfluxandhencepotentiallymoresevereEMI
problems.
Closedgeometriessuchaspotcoresmakeformoredifficult
fabricationbutmuchlessstrayfluxandhenceEMIproblems.
Bobbinorcoilformerprovidedwithmostcores.
insulating layer
magnetic steel
lamination
Dimensionsofcoreareoptimizedbythemanufacturersothatfora
givenrating(i.e.storedmagneticenergyforaninductororVI
ratingforatransformer),thevolumeorweightofthecoreplus
windingisminimizedorthetotalcostisminimized.
Largerratingsrequirelargercoresandwindings.
Optimizationrequiresexperienceandcomputerizedoptimization
algorithm.
Magnetics7
DoubleECoreExample
d
a
2
a
2
a
1.9 a
1.4 a
hw
ha
bw
2
ba
Bobbin
Assembled core and winding
Core
Characteristic
Core area Acore
Winding area A w
Relative Size
1.5 a2
1.4 a2
Area product AP = AwA c

Core volume V core
2.1 a4
13.5 a3
Winding volume V w
Total surface area of
assembled core and
winding
12.3a3
59.6 a2
Absolute Size for

a = 1 cm
1.5 cm2
1.4 cm2
2.1 cm4
13.5 cm3
12.3 cm3
59.6 cm2
Magnetics8
TypesofCoreMaterials
Iron-based alloys
Ferrite cores
Various compositions
Fe-Si (few percent Si)
Fe-Cr-Mn
METGLASS (Fe-B, Fe-B-Si, plus many
other compositions)
Important properties
Resistivity _ = (10 - 100)
Cu
Bs = 1 - 1.8 T (T = tesla = 10 4 oe)

METGLASS materials available only as
tapes of various widths and thickness.
Various compositions - iron oxides,

Fe-Ni-Mn oxides
Important properties
Resistivity very large (insulator) no ohmic losses and hence skin
effect problems at high
frequencies.
Bs = 0.3 T (T = tesla = 10 4 oe)
Other iron alloys available as laminations

of various shapes.
Powdered iron can be sintered into
various core shapes. Powdered iron cores
have larger effective resistivities.
Magnetics9
HysteresisLossinMagneticMaterials
B
Bs
Minor
hystersis
loop
Bac
t
Bac
Bdc
- Bs
Areaencompassedbyhysteresis
loopequalsworkdoneonmaterial
duringonecycleofappliedac
magneticfield.Areatimesfrequency
equalspowerdissipatedperunit
volume.
B(t)
Typicalwaveformsoffluxdensity,
B(t)versustime,inaninductor.
OnlyBaccontributestohysteresis
loss.
Magnetics10
QuantitativeDescriptionofCoreLosses
Eddy current loss plus hysteresis loss =
core loss.
3F3 core losses in graphical form.
d
Empirical equation - Pm,sp = k f a [Bac]
.
f = frequency of applied field. Bac =
base-to-peak value of applied ac field. k,
a, and d are constants which vary from
material to material
Pm,sp = 1.5x10 -6 f 1.3 [Bac] 2.5
mW/c m3 for 3F3 ferrite. (f in kHz and
B in mT)
2
Pm,sp = 3.2x10 -6 f 1.8 [Bac]
mW/c m3 METGLAS 2705 M (f in kHz
and B in mT)
Example: 3F3 ferrite with f = 100 kHz
and Bac = 100 mT, Pm,sp = 60
mW/c m3
Magnetics11
CoreMaterialPerformanceFactor
Voltamp(VA)ratingoftransformersproportionaltofBac
CorematerialshavedifferentallowablevaluesofBacataspecificfrequency.BaclimtedbyallowablePm,sp.
MostdesirablematerialisonewithlargestBac.
ChoosingbestmaterialaidedbydefininganempericalperformancefactorPF=fB ac.PlotsofPFversus
frequencyforaspecifiedvalueofPm,sppermitrapidselectionofbestmaterialforanapplication.
PlotofPFversusfrequencyatPm,sp=100mW/cm3forseveraldifferentferritesshownbelow.
Magnetics12
EddyCurrentLossesinMagneticCores
Eddy current
Bi(r)
Bo
B (r)
i
B (r)
i
B (t)
o
= exp({r - a}/ )
= skin depth =
= 2 f, f = frequency
= magnetic permeability ;
o for magnetic materials.
= conductivity of material.
AC magnetic fields generate eddy

currents in conducting magnetic materials.
Eddy currents dissipate power.
Shield interior of material from
magnetic
field.
Numerical example
= 0.05 cu ; = 10 3 o
f = 100 Hz
= 1 mm
Magnetics13
LaminatedCores
Coresmadefromconductivemagnetic
materialsmustbemadeofmanythin
laminations.Laminationthickness<skin
depth.
t
Stackingfactorkstack=t+0.05t
0.5 t
t (typically
0.3 mm)
Insulator
Magnetic steel
lamination
Magnetics14
EddyCurrentLossesinLaminatedCores
Flux (t) intercepted by current loop
Average power Pec dissipated in lamination

w Ld 3 2 B2
given by Pec = <p(t)dV>=
24core
Pec
w Ld 3 2 B2 1
d2 2 B2
Pec,sp =
=
V
24core
dwL
24core
of area 2xw given by (t) = 2xwB(t)

Voltage in current loop v(t) = 2xw
dB(t)
dt
= 2wxBcos(t)
2wcore
Current loop resistance r =
; w >> d
L dx
Instantaneous power dissipated in thin loop
[v(t) ] 2
p(t) =
r
Average power Pec dissipated in lamination
w
x
z
w Ld 3 2 B2
given by Pec = <p(t)dV>=
24core
Pec
w Ld 3 2 B2 1
d2 2 B2
Pec,sp =
=
V
24core
dwL
24core
d
y
L
dx
B sin(
t)
-x
Eddy current fow path
Magnetics15
PowerDissipationinWindings
bobbin
Averagepowerperunitvolumeofcopperdissipated
incopperwinding=Pcu,sp=cu(Jrms)2where
Jrms=Irms/Acu andcu=copperresistivity.
Averagepowerdissipatedperunitvolumeof
winding=Pw,sp=kcu cu(Jrms)2;Vcu=kcu
VwwhereVcu=totalvolumeofcopperinthe
windingandVw=totalvolumeofthewinding.
NAcu
Copperfillfactorkcu= A <1
w
N=numberofturns;Acu=crosssectionalarea
ofcopperconductorfromwhichwindingismade;
Aw=bwlw=areaofwindingwindow.
kcu=0.3forLeitzwire;kcu=0.6forround
conductors;kcu0.70.8forrectangular
conductors.
Winding conductor
airgap
hw
Aw
g
>
g
2
bw
DoubleEcoreexample
kcu<1because:
Insulationonwiretoavoidshorting
outadjacentturnsinwinding.
Geometricrestrictions.(e.g.tightpacked
circlescannotcover100%ofasquare
area.)
Magnetics16
EddyCurrentsIncreaseWindingLosses
ACcurrentsinconductorsgenerateac
magneticfieldswhichinturngenerateeddy
currentsthatcauseanonuniformcurrent
densityintheconductor.Effectiveresistance
ofconductorincreasedoverdcvalue.
Pw,sp>kcucu(Jrms)2ifconductor
dimensionsgreaterthanaskindepth.
J(r)
J =exp({ra}/)
o
2
=skindepth=
=2 f,f=frequencyofaccurrent
=magneticpermeabilityofconductor;
=ofornonmagneticconductors.
=conductivityofconductormaterial.
Numericalexampleusingcopperat100 C
Frequency
Skin
Depth
50
Hz
10.6
mm
5
kHz
1.06
mm
20
kHz
0.53
mm
500
kHz
0.106
mm
Eddy currents
H(t)
I(t)
J(t)
J(t)
I(t)
B sin( t)
+
-
+
-
B sin( t)
MnimizeeddycurrentsusingLeitzwire
bundle.Eachconductorinbundlehasa
diameterlessthanaskindepth.
Twistingofparalleledwirescauseseffectsof
interceptedfluxtobecanceledoutbetween
adjacenttwistsoftheconductors.Hencelittleif
anyeddycurrents.
Magnetics17
ProximityEffectFurtherIncreasesWindingLosses
a)
(b)
x
x
x
x
x
x
Proximityeffectlossesduetoeddy
currentgeneratedbythemagnetic
fieldexperiencedbyaparticular
conductorsectionbutgenerated
bythecurrentflowingintherestof
thewinding.
MMF
10
Designmethodsforminimizing
proximityeffectlossesdiscussed
later.
Eddy
Current
Losses
100
30
10
3
1
x
Magnetics18
MinimumWindingLoss
Pw=Pdc+Pec;Pec=eddycurrentloss.
Pw={Rdc+Rec}[Irms]2=Rac[Irms]2
Optimumconductorsize
Resistance
R dc
R
ec
Rac=FRRdc=[1+Rec/Rdc]Rdc
Minimumwindinglossatoptimumconductorsize.
Pw=1.5Pdc
Pec=0.5Pdc
d opt
d = conductor
diameter or
thickness
Highfrequenciesrequiresmallconductorsizesminimizeloss.
Pdckeptsmallbyputtingmaysmallsizeconductorsinparallelusing
Litzwireorthinbutwidefoilconductors.
Magnetics19
ThermalConsiderationsinMagneticComponents
Losses(windingandcore)raisecore
temperature.Commondesignpracticeto
limitmaximuminteriortemperatureto100125C.
Corelosses(atconstantfluxdensity)increase
withtemperatureincreasesabove100C
SaturationfluxdensityBsdecreaseswithtemp.
Increases
Nearbycomponentssuchaspowersemi
conductordevices,integratedcircuits,
capacitors
havesimilarlimits.
Temperaturelimitationsincopperwindings
Copperresistivityincreaseswithtemperature
increases.Thuslosses,atconstantcurrent
densityincreasewithtemperature.
Reliabilityofinsulatingmaterialsdegradewith
temperatureincreases.
Surfacetemperatureofcomponentnearlyequalto
interiortemperature.Minimaltemperaturegradient
betweeninteriorandexteriorsurface.
Powerdissipateduniformlyincomponent
volume.
Largecrosssectionalareaandshortpath
lengthstosurfaceofcomponents.
Coreandwindingmaterialshavelargethermal
conductivity.
. Thermalresistance(surfacetoambient)ofmagnetic
componentdeterminesitstemperature.
TsTa
h
Psp=R (V +V );Rsa=A
sa w
c
s
h=convectiveheattransfercoefficient=
10Cm2/W
As=surfaceareaofinductor(core+winding).
Estimateusingcoredimensionsandsimple
geometricconsiderations.
Uncertainaccuracyinhandotherheattransfer
parametersdonotjustifymoreaccuratethermal
modelingofinductor.
Magnetics20
ScalingofCoreFluxDensityandWindingCurrentDensity
Powerperunitvolume,Psp,dissipatedinmagnetic
componentisPsp=k1/a;k1=constantand
Jrms=
Psp
1
kcurcu=k2 k a;k2=constant
cu
a=corescalingdimension.
TsTa
Pw,spVw+Pm,spVm= R
:
sa
Ta=ambienttemperatureandRsa=
surfacetoambientthermalresistanceofcomponent.
ForoptimaldesignPw,sp=Pc,sp=Psp:
TsTa
HencePsp=R (V +V )
sa w
c
Rsaproportionaltoa2and(Vw+Vc)
proportionaltoa3
Pm,sp=Psp=kfb[Bac]d;Hence
d P
k3
sp
Bac=
=
wherek3=constant
kfb
d
fba
PlotsofJrms,Bac,andPspversuscoresize
(scalefactora)foraspecificcorematerial,geometry,
frequency,andTsTavalueveryusefulforpicking
appropriatecoresizeandwindingconductorsize.
Magnetics21
ExampleofPowerDensityandCurrentDensityScaling
J rms
P
sp
mW/cm 3
A/mm 2
Assumptions
1. DoubleEcoremadefrom3F3ferrite
2. Ts=100CandTa=40C.
400
350
300
250
200
J rms
3. WindingmadewithLeitzwirekcu=
0.3
150
100
Psp
1
50
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
Core scaling parameter a [cm]
Magnetics22
AnalysisofaSpecificInductorDesign
Inductor specifications
Maximum current = 4 ams rms at 100 kHz
Double-E core with a = 1 cm using 3F3 ferrite.
Distributed air-gap with four gaps, two in series in each leg;
total gap length g = 3 mm.
Winding - 66 t urns of Leitz wire with A cu = 0.64 mm2
Inductor surface black with emissivity = 0.9
T a,max = 40 C
Find; inductance L, T s,max ; effect of a 25 % overcurrent on Ts
Power dissipation in winding, Pw = V w kcu cu (J rms) 2 = 3.2 Watt s

V w = 12.3 cm3 (table of core characteristics)
kcu = 0.3 (L eitz wire)
cuat 100 C (approx. max. T s) = 2.2x10 -8 ohm-m
J rms = 4/ (.64) = 6.25 A/mm 2
Power dissipation in 3F3 ferrite core,

Pcore = V c1.5x10 -6 f 1.3 (Bac) 2.5 = 3.3 W
A g o N 2I rms
Bac
= 0.18 mT; assumes Hg >>Hcore
A c g
A g = (a + g)(d + g) = 1.71 cm2 ; g = 3mm/4 = .075 mm
A c = 1.5 cm2 ( table of core characteristics
V c = 13.5 cm3 (table of core characteristics)
f = 100 kHz
fringing
flux
g
g
d
A core
Ag
Magnetics23
AnalysisofaSpecificInductorDesign(cont.)
L =
N
= 310 H
I
= Bac A c = (0.18 T )(1.5x10 -4 m2 ) = 2.6x10 -5 Wb
Surface temperature Ts = T a + Rsa (P w + Pcore) = 104 C

Rsa = R,rad || R,conv = 9.8 C/W
R,rad =
60
373 4
- 313 4
(5.1)(0 .006)
100
100
1
R,conv =
(1.34)(0.006)
0.035
60
= 20.1 [C/W ]
fringing
flux
= 19.3 [C/W ]
g
g
Overcurrent of 25 % (I= 5 amp rms) makes T s = 146 C
A core
Pw = (3.2 W)(1.25) 2 = 5 W ; Pcore = (3.3 W)(1.25) 2.5 = 5.8 W

T s = ( 9.8 C/W )(10.8 W) + 40 C = 146 C
Ag
Magnetics24
StoredEnergyRelationBasisofInductorDesign
Inputspecificationsforinductordesign
InductancevalueL.
RatedpeakcurrentI
RatedrmscurrentIrms.
Rateddccurrent(ifany)Idc.
Designprocedurestartingpointstoredenergyrelation
[LI]Irms=[NIrms
kcuAw
N= A
cu
Operatingfrequencyf.
=BAcore;Irms=JrmsAcu
MaximuminductorsurfacetemperatureTs
andmaximumambienttemperatureTa.
LIIrms=kcuJrmsBAwAcore
Designconsistsofthefollowing:
Selectionofcoregeometricshapeandsize
Equationrelatesinputspecifications(lefthandside)to
neededcoreandwindingparameters(righthandside)
Corematerial
Windingconductorgeometricshapeandsize
Numberofturnsinwinding
Agooddesignprocedurewillconsistsofasystematic,
singlepassmethodofselectingkcu,Jrms,B,Aw,andAcore.
Goal:Minimizeinductorsize,weight,andcost.
Magnetics25
CoreDatabaseBasicInductorDesignTool
Interactive core database (spreadsheet-based) key to a single pass inductor design procedure.
User enters input specifications from converter design requirements. Type of conductor for windings
(round wire, Leitz wire, or rectangular wire or foil) must be made so that copper fill factor kcu is
known.
Spreadsheet calculates capability of all cores in database and displays smallest size core of each
type
that meets stored energy specification.
Also can be designed to calculate (and display as desired) design output parameters including J rms,
B,
Acu, N, and air-gap length.
Multiple iterations of core material and winding conductor choices can be quickly done to aid in
selection of most appropriate inductor design.
Information on all core types, sizes, and materials must be stored on spreadsheet. Info includes
dimensions, Aw, Acore, surface area of assembled inductor, and loss data for all materials of interest.
Pre-stored information combined with user inputs to produce performance data for each core in
spreadsheet. Sample of partial output shown below.
CoreNo. Material
3F3
AP=
R
Psp@
Jrms@
AwAcore T=60C T=60C T=60C
&Psp
9.8C/W
2.1
237
3.3/ kcu
4
3
cm
mW/cm
Bac@
T=60C
&100kHz
^
kcuJrmsB
170mT
AwAcore
.0125 kcu
Magnetics26
DetailsofInteractiveInductorCoreDatabaseCalculations
Userinputs:L,I,Irms,Idc,f,Ts,Ta,andkcu
Storedinformation(static,independentofconverterrequirements)
Coredimensions,Aw, Acore, Vc,Vw, surfacearea, meanturnlength,meanmagneticpathlength,etc.
Quantitativecorelossformulasforallmaterialsofinterestincludingapproximatetemperaturedependence.
Calculationofcorecapabilities(storedenergyvalue)
1. Computeconverterrequiredstoredenergyvalue:LIIrms.
2. ComputeallowablespecificpowerdissipationP sp=[TsTa]/{Rsa[Vc+Vw]}.Rsa=h/Asorcalculated
interactivelyusinginputtemperaturesandformulasforconvectiveandradiativeheattransferfromHeatSink
chapter.
3. ComputeallowablefluxdensityPsp=kfb[Bac]dandcurrentdensityPsp=kcucu{Jrms}2.
4. ComputecorecapabilitieskcuAw Acore B Jrms
Calculationofinductordesignparameters.
1.AreaofwindingconductorAcu=I/Jrms.
2. Calculateskindepthinwinding.IfAcu>2attheoperatingfrequency,thensingleroundconductorcannot
beusedforwinding.
ConstructwindingusingLeitzwire,thinfoils,orparalleledsmalldia.()roundwires.
Magnetics27
DetailsofInteractiveCoreDatabaseCalculations(cont.)
3. CalculatenumberturnsofNinwinding:N=kcuAw/Acu.
4. CalculateairgaplengthLg.Airgaplengthdeterminedonbasisthatwheninductorcurrent
equalspeakvalueI,fluxdensityequalspeakvalueB.
Formulasforairgaplengthdifferentfordifferentcoretypes.ExamplefordoubleEcore
giveninnextslide.
5. CalculatemaximuminductanceLmaxthatcorecansupport.Lmax=NAcoreBpeak/Ipeak.
IfLmax>requiredLvalue,reduceLmaxbyremovingwindingturns.
Saveoncoppercosts,weight,andvolume.
PwcanbekeptconstantbyincreasingPw,sp
KeepfluxdensityBpeakconstantbyadjustinggaplengthLg.
6. AlternativeLmaxreductionprocedure,increasingthevalueofLg,keepingeverythingelse
constant,isapoorapproach.Wouldnotreducecopperweightandvolumeandthusachieve
costsavings.Fullcapabilityofcorewouldnotbeutilized.
Magnetics28
SettingDoubleECoreAirgapLength
Set total airgap length Lg so that Bpeak generated at the peak

current Ipeak.
Lg = Ng g ; Ng = number of distributed gaps each of length g.

Distributed gaps used to minimize amount of flux fringing into
winding and thus causing additional eddy current losses.
N Ipeak
Lg
Rm =
= Rm,core + Rm,gap Rm,gap =
A c Bpeak
oA g
N Ipeak o A g
Lg =
A c Bpeak
Lg
Lg
For a double-E core, A g = (a +
) (d +
)
Ng
Ng
Lg
Lg
A g ad + (a + d)
;
<< a
Ng
Ng
Insertion of expression for A g(Lg) into expression for Lg(A g)
and solving for Lg yields

Lg =
a
Bpeak A c
a+ d
-
d o N Ipeak
dN g
Above expression for Lg only valid for double-E core, but

similar expressions can be developed for other core shapes.
fringing
flux
g
g
d
A core
Ag
Magnetics29
SinglePassInductorDesignProcedure
Start
Enter design inputs
into core database
Examine database
outputs & select core
Neglect skin,
proximity effects?
No
Yes
Iterative selection of
conductor type/size.
Select wires
No
Estimate L
max.
Too large?
Yes
Remove turns and

readjust airgap
Finish
Magnetics30
InductorDesignExample
Assembledesigninputs
L=300microhenries
Peakcurrent=5.6A,
sinewavecurrent,Irms=4A
Frequency=100kHz
Ts=100C;Ta=40C
StoredenergyLIIrms=(3x104)(5.6)(4)
=0.00068Jm3
Corematerialandgeometricshape
Highfrequencyoperationdictatesferrite
material.3F3materialhashighest
performancefactorPFat100kHz.
DoubleEcorechosenforcoreshape.
DoubleEcorewitha=1cmmeetsrequirements.
^ A A
kcuJrmsB
w core0.0125 kcu0.0068
forkcu>0.3
Databaseoutput:R=9.8C/Wand
Psp=237mW/cm3
CorefluxdensityB=170mTfromdatabase.
NoIdc,Bpeak=170mT.
Windingparameters.
Litzwireused,sokcu=0.3.Jrms=6A/mm2
Acu=(4A)/(6A/mm2)=0.67mm2
N=(140mm2)((0.3)/(0.67mm2)=63turns.
(63)(170mT)(1.5x104m2)
Lmax=
5.6A
290microhenries
102
Lg=
(0.17)(1.5x104)
2.5x102
(1.5x102)(4x10 7)(63)(5.6) (4)(1.5x102)

Lg 3mm
LmaxL sonoadjustmentofinductancevalue
isneeded.
Magnetics31
IterativeInductorDesignProcedure
Start
Assemble design inputs
Design winding (k
Compute L I I rms
No
,J, A cu
, N)
cu
Corrected inductancecurrent product greater

than L I I rms ?
Yes
Choose core size using initial

values of J and B
Iterativedesignprocedureessentially
consistsofconstructingthecore
databaseuntilasuitablecoreisfound.
Choosecorematerialandshapeand
conductortypeasusual.
Usestoredenergyrelationtofindan
initialareaproductAwAcandthusan
initialcoresize.
Select larger core size

Find allowable power
dissipation density P
sp
Find maximum inductance
Find corrected core fux
density B
ac
Design airgap length g
Find corrected peak core fux
density B
Set L to design value
UseinitialvaluesofJrms=24A/mm2
andBac=50100mT.
Useinitialcoresizeestimate(valueofain
doubleEcoreexample)tofindcorrected
valuesofJrmsandBacandthuscorrectedvalue
^ A A
ofkcuJrmsB
w core.
^ A A
ComparekcuJrmsB
w corewith
LIIrmsanditerateasneededintoproper
sizeisfound.
Magnetics32
Simple,NonoptimalInductorDesignMethod
AssembledesigninputsandcomputerequiredLIIrms
Start
Choosecoregeometryandcorematerialbasedon
considerationsdiscussedpreviously.
Compute L I I rms
AssumeJrms=24A/mm2andBac=50100mTanduse
LIIrms=kcuJrmsBacAwAcoretofindtherequiredarea
productAwAcoreandthusthecoresize.
Determine core size using

assumed values of J and B
AssumedvaluesofJrmsandBacbasedonexperience.
Design winding (k cu,J, A cu
, N)
Completedesignofinductorasindicated.
Set airgap length g to
obtain desired inductance L
No
Check power dissipation

and surface temperature.
Excessive?.
Select
larger
core size
Yes
Done
Checkpowerdissipationandsurfacetemperatureusing
assumedvaluesofJrmsandBac.Ifdissipationor
temperatureareexcessive,selectalargercoresizeandrepeat
designstepsuntildissipation/temperatureareacceptable.
Procedureissocalledareaproductmethod.Usefulin
situationswhereonlyoneoretwoinductorsaretobebuilt
andsize/weightconsiderationsaresecondarytorapid
constructionandtesting..
Magnetics33
AnalysisofSpecificTransformerDesign
Transformerspecifications
WoundondoubleEcorewith
a=1cmusing3F3ferrite.
Ipri=4Arms,sinusoidalwaveform;
Vpri=300Vrms.
Frequency=100kHz
TurnsratioNpri/Nsec=4and
Npri=32.
Windingwindowsplitevenlybetween
primaryandsecondaryandwound
withLitzwire.
Transformersurfaceblack(E=0.9)
andTa40C.
Find:corefluxdensity,leakageinductance,
andmaximumsurfacetemperatureTs,and
effectof25%overcurrentonTs.
Areasofprimaryandsecondaryconductors,
Acu,priandAcu,sec.
NpriAcu,pri
NsecAcu,sec
Aw,pri= k
;Aw,sec= k
cu,pri
cu,sec
NpriAcu,pri
NsecAcu,sec
Aw,pri+Aw,sec=Aw=
+
kcu
kcu
wherekcu,pri=kcu,sec=kcusinceweassumeprimaryand
secondaryarewoundwithsametypeofconductor.
Equalpowerdissipationdensityinprimaryandsecondarygives
Ipri
Acu,pri
Nsec
Isec=Acu,sec= Npri
kcuAw
UsingaboveequationsyieldsAcu,pri= 2N and
pri
kcuAw
Acu,sec= 2N
sec
(0.3)(140mm2)
Numericalvalues:Acu,pri=
=0.64mm2
(2)(32)
(0.3)(140mm2)
andAcu,sec=
=2.6mm2
(2)(8)
Magnetics34
AnalysisofSpecificTransformerDesign(cont.)
Power dissipation in winding Pw = kcu cu(J rms) 2 V w
Mean turn length l w

Top view
of bobbin
radi us = b / 2
w
J rms = (4 A)/ (0.64 mm2 ) = (16 A)/ (2.6 mm2 ) = 6.2 A/ mm2
Pw = (0 .3)(2 .2x10 -8 ohm-m) (6 .2x10 6 A/ m2 ) 2 (1.23x10 -5 m3 )
Pw = 3.1 watts
1.9 a
1.4 a
Flux density and core loss

V pri,max = Npri A c Bac = (1.414)(300 ) = 425 V
Bac =
425
= 0.140 T
(32) (1.5x10 -4 m 2 )(2 )(10 5 Hz)
Pcore = (13 .5 cm3 )(1 .5x10 -6 )(100 kHz) 1.3 (140 mT) 2.5 = 1.9 W
o(Npri) 2 b w lw
Leakage inductance Lleak =
3 hw
lw = 8 a = 8 cm
(4 x10-7 )(32 ) 2 (0.7)(10 -2 )(8 x10 -2 )
Lleak =
(3) (2x10 -2 )
12 microhenries
b w = 0.7a
l w = (2)(1.4a) + (2)(1.9a) + 2 (0.35bw ) = 8 a
Surface temperature Ts.

Assume R,sa 9.8 C/ W.
Same geometry as inductor.
Ts = (9 .8)(3 .1 + 1.9) + 40 = 89 C
Effect of 25% overcurrent.
No change in core fux density.
Constant voltage applied to
primary keeps fux density constant.
Pw = (3.1)(1 .25) 2 = 4.8 watts
` Ts = (9 .8)(4 .8 + 1.9) + 40 = 106 C
Magnetics35
SectioningofTransformerWindingstoReduceWindingLosses
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Primary
Reducewindinglossesbyreducingmagnetic
field(orequiventlythemmf)seenby
conductorsinwinding.Notpossibleinan
inductor.
Secondary
MMF
N pri I pri = N sec I sec
P
2
bw
MMF
MMF
N pri
I pri
2
Simpletwosectiontransformerwinding
situation.
0
I pri
2
N pri
I pri
4
Divisionintomultiple
sectionsreducesMMFand
henceeddycurrentlosses.
x
N pri
x
N pri
I pri
4
Magnetics36
OptimizationofSolidConductorWindings
Nomalized power dissipation =

Pw
FRRdc
=
Rdc,h=
Rdc,h=(Irms) 2
500
m = 20
m = 18
m = 16
100
Fl h
m = 14
Conductor height/ diameter
m = 12
Fl = copper layer factor

Fl = b/b o for rectangular conductors
m = 10
m=9
m=8
Fl = d/ do for round conductors

h = effective conductor height
m=7
m=6
d for round conductors

4
m = number of layers
h=
m=5
10
m=4
hw
m=3
h
m=2
1
0.6
0.1
b
bo
Locus of
minimum total loss
= 1.5 dc loss
dc loss
turns per layer =
hw
bo
m=1
1
h/
10
do
hw
N
turns per layer =
hw
do
Magnetics37
TransformerLeakageInductance
Linear variation of mmf in winding window indicates
spatial variation of magnetic fux in the window and thus
incomplete fux linkage of primary and secondary windings.
Transformer leakage inductance causes

overvoltages across power switches at t urn-off.
Leakage inductance caused by magnetic
flux which does not completely link primary
and secondary windings.
Hwindow = Hleak =
Direction and relative

magnitude of leakage
magnetic field.
Hleak =
x
x
h
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
o(Hleak) 2dV
2
Vw
Volume element dV = hw lw(x)dx ; lw(x) equals the
x = current
into page
= current
out of page
x
bw
length of the conductor turn located at position x.

Assume a mean turn length lw 8a for double-E
Secondary
MMF
; 0 < x < bw/ 2
2 NpriI pri
(1 - x/ bw) ; bw/ 2 < x < bw
hw
Lleak( Ipri) 2
Primary
Npri I pri = Nsec I sec
2 NpriI prix
hwb w
core independent of x.
bw/ 2
Lleak( Ipri) 2
2 NpriI prix
1
o[
= (2)
] 2 hw lwdx
2
2
h
b
w w
0
o( Npri) 2 lwb w
Lleak =
3 p2 hw
If winding is split into p+1 sections, with p > 1,
leakage inductance is greatly reduced.
Magnetics38
VoltAmp(Power)RatingBasisofTransformerDesign
Inputdesignspecifications
DesignproceedurestartingpointtransformerVAratingS
RatedrmsprimaryvoltageVpri
S=VpriIpri+VsecIsec=2VpriIpri
RatedrmsprimarycurrentIpri
NpriAcoreBac
d
Vpri=Npri dt =
;Ipri=JrmsAcu,pri
2
TurnsratioNpri/Nsec
Operatingfrequencyf
MaximumtemperaturesTsandTa
Designconsistsofthefollowing:
Selectionofcoregeometricshapeandsize
Corematerial
NpriAcoreBac
S=2VpriIpri=2
JrmsAcu,pri
2
kcuAw
Acu,pri= 2N
pri
NpriAcoreBac
kcuAw
S=2VpriIpri=2
Jrms 2N
2
pri
S=VpriIpri=4.4kcufAcoreAwJrmsBac
Windingconductorgeometricshapeandsize
Numberofturnsinprimaryandsecondary
windings.
Equationrelatesinputspecifications(lefthandside)tocore
andwindingparameters(righthandside).
Desireddesignprocedurewillconsistofasystematic,
singlepassmethodofselectingkcu,Acore,Aw,Jrms,andBac.
Magnetics39
CoreDatabaseBasicTransformerDesignTool
Interactive core database (spreadsheet-based) key to a single pass tramsformer design procedure.
User enters input specifications from converter design requirements. Type of conductor for windings
(round wire, Leitz wire, or rectangular wire or foil) must be made so that copper fill factor kcu is
known.
Spreadsheet calculates capability of all cores in database and displays smallest size core of each
type
that meets V- I specification.
Also can be designed to calculate (and display as desired) design output parameters including J rms,
B,
Acu,pri, Acu,sec, Npri, Nsec, and leakage inductance..
Multiple iterations of core material and winding conductor choices can be quickly done to aid in
selection of most appropriate tranformer design.
Information on all core types, sizes, and materials must be stored on spreadsheet. Info includes
dimensions, Aw, Acore, surface area of assembled transformer , and loss data for all materials of interest.
Pre-stored information combined with user inputs to produce performance data for each core in
spreadsheet. Sample of partial output shown below.
Core
No.
Material
3F3
AP=
AwAc
2.1
4
cm
R
T=60C
9.8C/W
Psp@
Ts=100C
Jrms@
Ts=100C
237
3
mW/cm
^ AP
2.22kcufJrmsB
(f=100kHz)
&100kHz
(3.3/
)
&Psp
^
B
rated@
Ts=100C
kcu
170mT
kcuRdc
Rac
Rdc
Rac
A/mm2
2.6x103
[VA]
Magnetics40
DetailsofInteractiveTransformerCoreDatabaseCalculations
Userinputs:Vpri,Ipri,turnsratioNdc/Nsec,f,Ts,Ta,andkcu
Storedinformation(static,independentofconverterrequirements)
Coredimensions,Aw, Acore, Vc,Vw, surfacearea, meanturnlength,meanmagneticpathlength,etc.
Quantitativecorelossformulasforallmaterialsofinterestincludingapproximatetemperaturedependence.
Calculationofcorecapabilities
1. Computeconverterrequiredstoredenergyvalue:S=2V priIpri
2. ComputeallowablespecificpowerdissipationP sp=[TsTa]/{Rsa[Vc+Vw]}.Rsa=h/Asorcalculated
interactivelyusinginputtemperaturesandformulasforconvectiveandradiativeheattransferfromHeatSink
chapter.
3. ComputeallowablefluxdensityPsp=kfb[Bac]dandcurrentdensityPsp=kcucu{Jrms}2.
4. Computecorecapabilities4.4fkcuAw Acore Bac Jrms
Calculationtransformerparameters.
1. CalculatenumberofprimaryturnsNpri=Vpri/{2fAcpreBac}andsecondaryturnsNsec=Vsec/{2fAcpreBac}
2. CalculatewindingconductorareasassuminglowfrequenciesoruseofLeitzwire
Acu,pri=[kcuAw]/[2Npri]andAcu,sec=[kcuAw]/[2Nsec]
Magnetics41
DetailsofInteractiveTransformerCoreDatabaseCalculations(cont.)
3.Calculatewindingareasassumingeddycurrent/proximityeffectisimportant
Onlysolidconductors,roundwiresorrectangularwires(foils),used.J rms=[{PspRdc}/{Rackcurcu}]1/2
Conductordimensionsmustsimultaneouslysatisfyarearequirementsandrequirementsofnormalized
powerdissipationversusnormalizedconductordimensions.
Mayrequirechangeinchoiceofconductorshape.Mostlikelywillrequirechoiceoffoils(rectangular
shapes).
Severaliterationsmaybeneededtofindpropercombinationsofdimensions,numberofturnsperlayer,
andnumberoflayersandsections.
Bestillustratedbyaspecificdesignexample.
4. EstimateleakageinductanceLleak={o{Npri}2lwbw}/{3p2hw}
5. EstimateSmax=4.4kcufAcoreAwJrmsBac
6. IfSmax>S=2VpriIprireduceSmaxandsaveoncoppercost,weight,andvolume.
IfNpriwAcBac>Vpri,reduceSmaxbyreducingNpriandNsec.
IfJrmsAcu,pri>Irms,reduceAcu,priandAcu,sec.
IfS>Smaxbyonlyamoderateamount(1020%)andsmallerthanS maxofnextcoresize,increaseSmaxof
presentcoresize.
IncreaseIrms(andthuswindingpowerdissipation)asneeded.TemperatureTswillincreaseamodest
amount
abovedesignlimit,butmaybepreferabletogoingtolargercoresize.
Magnetics42
SinglePassTransformerDesignProcedure
Start
Enter design inputs
into core database
Examine database
outputs & select core
Neglect skin,
proximity effects?
No
Yes
Iterative selection of
conductor type/size.
Select w ires
No
Estimate S max
.
Too large?
Yes
Remove turns
Finish
Magnetics43
TransformerDesignExample
Designinputs
Vpri=300Vrms;Irms=4Arms
Turnsration=4
Operatingfrequencyf=100kHz
Ts=100CandTa=40C
VIratingS=(300Vrms)(4Arms)
=1200watts
Corematerial,shape,andsize.
Use3F3ferritebecauseithaslargest
performancefactorat100kHz.
UsedoubleEcore.Relativelyeasyto
fabricatewinding.
Rdc
Corevoltamprating=2,600 kcu
Rac
Usesolidrectangularconductorfor
windingsbecauseofhighfrequency.
Thuskcu=0.6andRac/Rdc=1.5.
0.6
Corevoltampcapability=2,600 1.5
=1644watts.>1200watttransformerrating.
Sizeisadequate.
Usingcoredatabase,R=9.8C/W
andPsp=240mW/cm3.
Fluxdensityandnumberofprimary
andsecondaryturns.
Fromcoredatabase,Bac=170mT.
300 2
Npri=
(1.5x104m2)(2) (105Hz)(0.17T)
=26.524. Roundeddownto24toincrease
flexibilityindesigningsectionalized
transformerwinding.
24
Nsec= 6 =6.
3.3
FromcoredatabaseJrms=
(0.6)(1.5)
=3.5A/mm2.
4Arms
Acu,pri=
=1.15mm2
2
3.5Arms/mm
Acu,sec=(4)(1.15mm2)=4.6mm2
Magnetics44
TransformerDesignExample(cont.)
Primaryandsecondaryconductorareas
proximityeffect/eddycurrentsincluded.
Assumerectangular(foil)conductorswith
kcu=0.6andlayerfactorFl=0.9.
Iteratetofindcompatiblefoilthicknesses
andnumberofwinding sections.
1stiterationassumeasingleprimarysection
andasingle secondarysectionandeachsection
havingsingleturnperlayer.Primaryhas24
layersandsecondaryhas6layers.
Acu,pri
Primarylayerheighthpri= F h
l w
1.15mm2
=(0.9)(20mm)=0.064mm
Normalizedprimaryconductorheight
Flhpri
0.9(0.064mm)
=
=
d
(0.24mm) =0.25;
=0.24mmincopperat100kHzand100C.
Optimumnormalizedprimaryconductorheight
=0.3soprimarywindingdesignissatisfactory.
Acu,sec
Secondarylayerheighthsec= F h
l w
4.6mm2
=(0.9)(20mm) 0.26mm.
Normalizedsecondaryconductorheight
Flhsec
0.9(0.26mm)
=
=
d
(0.24mm) =1
Howeverasixlayersectionhasanoptimum
=0.6.Atwolayersectionhasanoptimum
=1.2nditerationneeded.
2nditerationsectionalizethewindings.
Useasecondaryof3sections,eachhavingtwo
layers,ofheighthsec=0.26mm.
Secondarymusthavesingleturnperlayer.
Twoturnsperlayerwouldrequirehsec=0.52mm
andthus=2.Examinationofnormalizedpower
dissipationcurvesshowsnooptimum=2.
Magnetics45
TransformerDesignExample(cont.)
P
6
S
3
P
3
S
3
Threesecondarysectionsrequiresfourprimarysections.
Twoouterprimarysectionswouldhave24/6=4
turnseachandtheinnertwosectionswouldhave
24/3=8turnseach.
Needtodeterminenumberofturnsperlayerand
hencenumberoflayerspersection.
Turns/
layer
hpri
No.of
Layers
1
2
4
0.064mm
0.128mm
0.26mm
8
4
2
0.25
0.5
1
Optimum
0.45
0.6
1
Usefourturnsperlayer.Twointeriorprimary
sectionshavetwolayersandoptimumvalueof
Twooutersectionshaveonelayereachandnot
optimum,butonlyresultsinslightincreaseinloss
abovetheminimum.
P
3
S
3
P
6
LeakageinductanceLleak
(4 x109)(24)2(8)(0.7)(1)
=
=0.2H
(3)(6)2(2)
Sectionalizingincreasescapacitance
betweenwindingsandthuslowersthe
transformerselfresonantfrequency.
Smax=1644watts
RatedvalueofS=1200wattsonly
marginallysmallerthanSmax.Littleto
begainedinreducingSmaxtoSunlessa
largenumberoftransformerofthisdesign
aretobefabricated.
Magnetics46
IterativeTransformerDesignProcedure
Start
Compute 2 V I
pri pri
Design windings (A cu,pri, N pri,

A cu,sec , N
sec )
Corrected V-I rating greater

than 2 V pri I pri ?
No
Yes
Choose core size using initial

values of J and B
Select larger core size
Find allowable power
dissipation density P
sp
Find maximum V - I rating
Find corrected core fux
density B
ac
Find corrected current

density J rms
Set S maxto desired S
Estimate leakage inductance
Iterativedesignprocedureessentially
consistsofconstructingthecore
databaseuntilasuitablecoreisfound.
Choosecorematerialandshapeand
conductortypeasusual.
UseVIratingtofindaninitialarea
productAwAcandthusaninitialcoresize.
UseinitialvaluesofJrms=24A/mm2
andBac=50100mT.
Useinitialcoresizeestimate(valueofain
doubleEcoreexample)tofindcorrected
valuesofJrmsandBacandthuscorrected
^ A A
valueof4.4fkcuJrmsB
w core.
^ A A
Compare4.4fkcuJrmsB
w corewith
2VpriIprianditerateasneededintoproper
sizeisfound.
End
Magnetics47
Simple,NonoptimalTransformerDesignMethod
Assembledesigninputsandcomputerequired2VpriIpri
Start
Choosecoregeometryandcorematerialbasedon
considerationsdiscussedpreviously.
Compute 2 Vpri I pri
AssumeJrms=24A/mm2andBac=50100mTanduse
2VpriIpri=4.4fkcuJrmsBacAwAcoretofindtherequiredarea
productAwAcoreandthusthecoresize.
Determine core size using

assumed values of J and B
AssumedvaluesofJrmsandBacbasedonexperience.
,
,N
Design winding (A
cu,pri pri
A cu,sec , N sec )
Set S maxto desired S
No
Check power dissipation

and surface temperature.
Excessive?.
Completedesignoftransformerasindicated.
Select
larger
core size
Yes
Done
Checkpowerdissipationandsurfacetemperatureusing
assumedvaluesofJrmsandBac.Ifdissipationor
temperatureareexcessive,selectalargercoresizeandrepeat
designstepsuntildissipation/temperatureareacceptable.
Procedureissocalledareaproductmethod.Usefulin
situationswhereonlyoneoretwotransformersaretobebuilt
andsize/weightconsiderationsaresecondarytorapid
constructionandtesting..
Magnetics48

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DesignofMagneticComponents

Instead only magnetic cores are available in a

Design consists of:

l m= mean path length

= 0 and thus N1I1= N2 I2

l m= mean path length

To control component temperature, surface area of

Higher electrical ratings larger total flux

Assembled core and winding

Area product AP = AwA c

Absolute Size for

Bs = 1 - 1.8 T (T = tesla = 10 4 oe)

Various compositions - iron oxides,

Other iron alloys available as laminations

3F3 core losses in graphical form.

AC magnetic fields generate eddy

Average power Pec dissipated in lamination

given by Pec = <p(t)dV>=

of area 2xw given by (t) = 2xwB(t)

given by Pec = <p(t)dV>=

Core scaling parameter a [cm]

Find; inductance L, T s,max ; effect of a 25 % overcurrent on Ts

Power dissipation in winding, Pw = V w kcu cu (J rms) 2 = 3.2 Watt s

Power dissipation in 3F3 ferrite core,

= Bac A c = (0.18 T )(1.5x10 -4 m2 ) = 2.6x10 -5 Wb

Surface temperature Ts = T a + Rsa (P w + Pcore) = 104 C

Overcurrent of 25 % (I= 5 amp rms) makes T s = 146 C

Pw = (3.2 W)(1.25) 2 = 5 W ; Pcore = (3.3 W)(1.25) 2.5 = 5.8 W

Set total airgap length Lg so that Bpeak generated at the peak

Lg = Ng g ; Ng = number of distributed gaps each of length g.

and solving for Lg yields

Above expression for Lg only valid for double-E core, but

Remove turns and

(1.5x102)(4x10 7)(63)(5.6) (4)(1.5x102)

Corrected inductancecurrent product greater

Choose core size using initial

Select larger core size

Determine core size using

Check power dissipation

Mean turn length l w

Flux density and core loss

Surface temperature Ts.

Nomalized power dissipation =

Conductor height/ diameter

Fl = copper layer factor

Fl = d/ do for round conductors

d for round conductors

turns per layer =

turns per layer =

Transformer leakage inductance causes

Direction and relative

length of the conductor turn located at position x.

; 0 < x < bw/ 2

Npri I pri = Nsec I sec

Design windings (A cu,pri, N pri,

Corrected V-I rating greater

Choose core size using initial

Find corrected current

Set S maxto desired S

Estimate leakage inductance

Compute 2 Vpri I pri

Determine core size using

Set S maxto desired S