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Figure 14.1. Map of relatively well-established hotspots and selected hotspot trails (island chains or aseismic ridges).
Hotspots and trails from Crough (1983) with selected more recent hotspots from Anderson and Schramm (2005). Also
shown are the geoid anomaly contours of Crough and Jurdy (1980, in meters). Note the preponderance of hotspots in the
two major geoid highs (superswells).
Plume
Hawaiian Scenario
Cyclic, pattern to the eruptive history
1. Pre-shield-building stage (variable)
2. Shield-building stage begins with tremendous
outpourings of tholeiitic basalts
3. Waning activity more alkaline, episodic, diverse,
and violent (Mauna Kea, Hualalai, and Kohala).
4. A long period of dormancy, followed by a late,
post-erosional stage. Characterized by highly
alkaline and silica-undersaturated magmas,
including alkali basalts, nephelinites, melilite
basalts, and basanites
K2O/SiO2
0.32
0.34
0.35
0.33
0.44
0.22
0.22
0.21
0.24
0.19
0.21
0.13
0.12
Trace Elements
The LIL trace elements (K, Rb, Cs, Ba, Pb2+ and Sr) are
incompatible and are all enriched in OIB magmas
with respect to MORBs
The ratios of incompatible elements have been
employed to distinguish between source reservoirs
N-MORB: the K/Ba ratio is high (usually > 100)
E-MORB: the K/Ba ratio is in the mid 30s
OITs range from 25-40, and OIAs in the upper 20s
Trace Elements
HFS elements (Th, U, Ce, Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, and Ti) are also
incompatible, and are enriched in OIBs > MORBs
Ratios of these elements are also used to distinguish mantle
sources
The Zr/Nb ratio
N-MORBs are generally quite high (>30)
OIBs are low (<10)
Nb/U vs. Nb
Figure 14.6. Nb/U ratios vs. Nb concentration in fresh glasses of both MORBs and OIBs. The Nb/U ratio is
impressively constant over a range of Nb concentrations spanning over three orders of magnitude (increasing
enrichment should correlate with higher Nb). From Hofmann (2003). Chondrite and continental crust values from
Hofmann et al. (1986).
Isotope Geochemistry
Isotopes do not fractionate during partial
melting of fractional melting processes, so
will reflect the characteristics of the source
OIBs, which sample a great expanse of
oceanic mantle in places where crustal
contamination is minimal, provide
incomparable evidence as to the nature of
the mantle
Ternary
Sr - Nd Isotopes
Figure 13.13. Data from Ito et al. (1987) Chemical Geology, 62, 157-176; and LeRoex et al. (1983) J.
Petrol., 24, 267-318.
Mantle Reservoirs
1. DM (Depleted
Mantle) = N-MORB
source
Pb Isotopes
Pb produced by radioactive decay of U & Th
Eq. 9.20
Eq. 9.21
Eq. 9.22
U 234U 206Pb
235U 207Pb
232Th 208Pb
238
204
U 234U 206Pb
235
U 207Pb
232
Th 208Pb
238
207
Pb/204Pb data (especially from the N hemisphere) ~linear mixing line between DM
and HIMU, a line called the Northern Hemisphere Reference Line (NHRL)
Data from the southern hemisphere (particularly Indian Ocean) departs from this line,
and appears to include a larger EM component (probably EMII)
He Isotopes
Noble gases are inert and volatile
He is an alpha particle, produced principally by -decay
of U and Th, enriching primordial 4He
3He is largely primordial (constant)
The mantle is continually degassing and He lost (cannot
recycle back)
4He enrichment expressed as R = (3He/4He)
4
He Isotopes
N-MORB is fairly
uniform at 81 RA
suggesting an
extensive depleted
(degassed) DM-type
N-MORB source
Figure 14.12 3He/4He isotope ratios in ocean island basalts and their relation to He concentration. Concentrations of 3He are
in cm3 at 1 atm and 298K.After Sarda and Graham (1990) and Farley and Neroda (1998).
He Isotopes
OIB 3He/4He values
extend to both higher and
lower values than NMORBs, but are typically
higher (low 4He).
Simplest explanations:
High R/RA is deeper
mantle with more
primordial signature
Figure 14.12 3He/4He isotope ratios in ocean island basalts and their relation to He concentration. Concentrations of 3He are
in cm3 at 1 atm and 298K.After Sarda and Graham (1990) and Farley and Neroda (1998).
He Isotopes
PHEM (primitive helium mantle) is a hi-3He/4He mantle end-member reservoir
with near-primitive Sr-Nd-Pb characteristics.
Figure 14.13 3He/4He vs. a. 87Sr/86Sr and b. 206Pb/204Pb for several OIB localities and MORB. The spread in the diagrams are
most simply explained by mixing between four mantle components: DM, EMII, HIMU, and PHEM. After Farley et al.
(1992).
He Isotopes
Summary:
Shallow mantle MORB source is relatively homogeneous and depleted in He
Deeper mantle has more primordial (high) 3He/4He, but still degassed and less
than primordial (100-200RA) values
PHEM may be that more primitive reservoir
Low 3He/4He may be due to recycled crustal U and Th
Re 187Os
Both are platinum group elements (PGEs) and highly siderophile ( core or
sulfides)
Mantle values of (187Os/188Os) are near chondritic (~0.13)
Os is compatible during mantle partial melting ( trace sulfides), but Re is
moderately incompatible ( melts and silicates)
The mantle is thus enriched in Os relative to crustal rocks and crustal rocks
(higher Re and lower Os) develop a high ( 187Os/188Os) which should show up if
crustal rocks are recycled back into the mantle.
O Isotopes (stable)
Sufficiently light to mass fractionate during several geologic processes
Fractionation during melting, crystallization, and gas exsolution is minor, so most
strictly silicate systems cluster at 18O 5.5 0.2.
18O of MORBs reach 6 and OIBs up to 7 or more.
The change is small, but higher values correlate with trace element and Sr-Nd-PbOs values indicative of enriched sources.
18O of near-surface waters (and sediments equilibrated with such waters) range
from 8 to 25.
High 18O in mantle systems is most readily explained by contamination by
material affected by surface waters.
Mantle Reservoirs
So is the mantle layered (shallow depleted and deeper non-depleted and even
enriched)?
Or are the enriched components stirred into the entire mantle (like fudge
ripple ice cream)?
How effective is the 660-km transition at impeding convective stirring??
This depends on the Clapeyron slope of the phase transformation at the
boundary!
No Effect
Retards Penetration
2-Layer Mantle Model more likely
Enhances Penetration
Whole-Mantle mixing more likely
Figure 14.16. Effectiveness of the 660-km transition in preventing penetration of a subducting slab or a rising plume
Mantle dynamics
Mantle dynamics
Figure14.17. Whole-mantle convection model with geochemical heterogeneity preserved as blobs of fertile mantle in a host of depleted
mantle. Higher density of the blobs results in their concentration in the lower mantle where they may be tapped by deep-seated plumes,
probably rising from a discontinuous D" layer of dense dregs at the base of the mantle. After Davies (1984) .
Mantle dynamics
Figure14.18. 2-layer mantle model with a dense layer in the lower mantle with less depletion in lithophile elements and noble gases. The
top of the layer varies in depth from ~ 1600 km to near the core-mantle boundary. After Kellogg et al. (1999).
Various mantle
convection
models.
After Tackley
(2000). Mantle
Convection and
Plate Tectonics:
Toward
an Integrated
Physical and
Chemical Theory.
Science, 288,
2002-2007.
Figure 14.19. Schematic model for oceanic volcanism. Nomenclature from Zindler and Hart (1986) and
Hart and Zindler (1989).
Partial Melting
in a Plume
Figure 14.20. Diagrammatic plume-tail
melting model. Rising plume material
(heavy arrows are flow lines) is hotter
toward the axis. Fluid-present melting of
mantle lherzolite may begin at depths of
about 350 km (stippled area), but the
extent of such melts depends on the
amount of fluid present and is probably
minor. Melting of recycled crustal pods
and stringers (red to green streaks) may
also begin near this depth and such
melting may be more extensive locally.
Major lherzolite melting occurs at depths
near 100 km. The melt fraction is greatest
near the plume axis, producing picrites
and tholeiites. The extent of plume
asymmetry depends on plume flux and
plate velocity. Plume-head melting is
much more extensive (Chapter 15).
Based on Wyllie (1988b).
Odd:
Tholeiites exhibit enriched
isotopic characteristics
and alkalic is more
depleted (opposite to
usual mantle trends for
OIA-OIT).
Probably due to more
extensive partial melting
in the plume axial area
( tholeiites) where the
deep enriched plume
source is concentrated
Less extensive partial
melting ( OIA) in the
margins where more
depleted upper mantle is
entrained
Figure 14.21. 143Nd/144Nd vs. 87Sr/86Sr for Maui and Oahu Hawaiian early tholeiitic shield-building, and
later alkaline lavas. From Wilson (1989). Copyright by permission Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Figure 14.22 Melt production in a numerical model of the Hawaiian plume assuming homogenous
peridotitic material. Note that melting begins at about 160 km and melt flux is greatest within 30-50 km of
the plume axis and deeper that 120 km. Of particular interest is the second melting event 300 km
downstream of the primary melt zone, a result of the reascension of plume material that previously
advected slightly downward beneath the lithosphere. Heavy black lines are mantle flow streamlines. After
Ribe and Christensen (1999).