X&XI Cast Iron

METALLURGY II
(RM-1421)
MINGGU X&XI
Introduction
Classifications of Cast Iron
Chemical Composition of Cast Iron
Cooling Rate of Cast Iron
Dosen:
Wahyu Wijanarko
Mechanical Engineering
ITS- Surabaya
Phase Diagram of Cast Iron

Schematic of Types of Cast Iron
Alloying Elements
Jadwal kuliah :
Tiap hari Selasa pukul 19.40 21.20 Ruang c-119
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Introduction
Family of ferrous alloys

Cast into desired shape
2-4% C & 1-3% Si
Properties affected by:
chemical composition
solidification process
solidification rate
heat treatments
Wide range of strengths and hardness

In most cases are easy to machine
Good hardness, wear resistance and corrosion
resistance effect of alloying elements
Low cost and versatile engineering properties
|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|
X&XI - 2
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Classifications of Cast Iron
White cast iron

Malleable cast iron
Gray cast iron
Nodular/Ductile cast iron
High alloys cast iron
1. Klasifikasi tergantung
dari bentuk grafit (C
yang berkumpul), atau
karbida yang terbentuk,
dan struktur mikro
dominan.
2. Tergantung juga oleh :
Komposisi kimia, Laju
pendinginan, dan
Perlakuan panas.

X&XI - 3
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Chemical Composition of Cast Iron

Faktor yang
berpengaruh terhadap
pembentukan jenis besi
tuang :
%C
% Si
Temperatur (Cooling
rate)

X&XI - 4
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

X&XI - 5
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Bila terjadi pendinginan besi tuang melalui garis

Eutectic dari A atau dari B apakah grafit akan
terbentuk?
+ eutectic liquid pada A
Pendinginan cepat + Fe3C (White cast iron)
Pendinginan lambat + Graphite (Gray cast
iron)
+ graphite (gray cast iron) pada titik B
+ Fe3C
pearlitic gray cast iron
+ graphite ferritic gray cast iron
X&XI - 6
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

X&XI - 7
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

X&XI - 8
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Irregular
shape
nodule
/rosette

X&XI - 9
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
White Cast Iron
Chemical composition:
Carbon 1.8-3.6 %
Silicon 0.5-1.9 %
Manganese
0.25-0.80
Sulfur 0.06-0.20
%
Phosphorus
0.06-0.18
%
%
Solidification rate fast enough

Carbon combined with iron cementite (hard,
brittle)
Microstructure pearlite in a white interdendritic
network of cementite
Shows a white crystalline fractured surface
X&XI - 10
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
White Cast Iron
High compressive strength and excellent wear resistance

but extremely brittle and difficult to machine
Used where:
resistance to wear is most important
The service does not require ductility
White cast iron Malleable cast iron (malleabilization)

Mechanical properties:
Hardness brinell
375 600
BHN
Tensile strength 20.000 70.000
psi
Compressive strength 200.000 250.000 psi
Modulus of elasticity 24 28 milion psi
X&XI - 11
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
White Cast Iron

Pada x3 :
Fasa
liquid
primer
Komposisi
4.3% C (titik E)
2% C (titik C)
Jumlah relatif
22%
78%
reaksi eutectic
liquid + Fe3C (ledeburite)
Pada x1 : -fasa liquid

-komposisi kimia 2.5%C
-jumlah relatif 100%
Pada x2 : -mulai terbentuk primer
Fasa
Fe3C
+ primer
Komposisi
6.67% C (titik D)
2% C (titik C)
Jumlah relatif
11%
89%
Pada
x :
Fasa 4
Fe3C
+ primer
Komposisi
6.67% C (titik K)
0.8% C (titik J)
Jumlah relatif
29%
71%
reaksi eutectoid
Fasa
+ Fe3C (pearlite)
Fe C
3
Komposisi
6.67% C
0.025% C
Jumlah relatif
37%
63%
X&XI - 12
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
White Cast Iron

X&XI - 13
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Malleable Cast Iron
Carbon 2.00-2.60
%
Silicon 1.10-1.60
%
Manganese
0.20-1.00
Sulfur 0.04-0.18
%
Phosphorus
0.18 % max
White cast iron Malleable cast iron (malleabilization)

Carbon in the form of irregularly shaped nodules of
graphite
Cementite irregularly shaped nodules graphite
Malleabilization:
First stages of the anneal
Second stages of the anneal

X&XI - 14
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Malleable Cast Iron

First stages
Reheated to 1650 and 1750oF
Austenite of the metastable
system can dissolve more
carbon than can austenite of the
stable system
Driving force for the carbon to
precipitate out of the austenite
as free graphite (temper carbon)
Structure at completion of first
stages graphitization consist of
temper carbon nodules
distributed throughout the
matrix of saturated austenite
Cooled as rapidly as practical
to about 1400oF
X&XI - 15
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Malleable Cast Iron

Second stages
Slowly cooled at a rate of 5 to
15oF/h
The carbon dissolved in the
austenite is converted to graphite on
the existing temper carbon particles,
and the remaining austenite
transforms into ferrite
The structure consist of temper
carbon nodules in a ferrite matrix
(ferritic malleable iron)
Temper carbon nodules does not
break up the continuity of the tough
ferritic matrix. This result in a
higher strength and ductility than
exhibited by gray cast iron
X&XI - 16
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Malleable Cast Iron

X&XI - 17
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Malleable Cast Iron

Second stages
Fast enough cooled to retained
combined carbon throughout
the matrix
If the air quenched produces a
fast enough cooling rate
through the eutectoid range,
the matrix will be completely
pearlitic
The strength and hardness of
the castings will be increased
over those of ferritic malleable
iron
Type
Ferritic
Tensile
Yield
Elongation
Strength Strength % in 2 in
1000 Psi 1000 Psi
50-60
Pearlitic 65-120
32-39
20-10
BHN
110-145
45-100 |Jurusan
16-2 Teknik Mesin
163-269
ITS|
X&XI - 18
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Malleable Cast Iron

Second stages
If the cooling rate through the
critical range is not quite fast
enough to retain all the
combined carbon, the areas
surrounding the temper carbon
nodules will be completely
graphitized, while those at
greater distance from the
nodules will be pearlitic.
Because of its general
appearance, this is referred to
as a bulls-eye structure

X&XI - 19
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Malleable Cast Iron

Pearlitic malleable irons
tempered at relatively high
temperatures spheroidize
the pearlite
Improve machinability and
toughness, and lower the
hardness

X&XI - 20
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Gray Cast Iron
Carbon 2.5-4.0 %
Silicon 1.0-3.0 %
Manganese
0.25-1.00
Sulfur 0.02-0.25
%
Phosphorus
0.05-1.0
%
%
Carbon in the iron separates or graphitizes during

solidification to form separate graphite flakes
The most fluid of the ferrous alloys
Have excellent machinability
Fracture surface appearance has a gray color
X&XI - 21
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Gray Cast Iron

The graphitization process is
aided by high carbon content,
high temperature, and the
proper amount of graphitizing
elements, notably silicon
With proper control of the
above factors, the alloy will
follow the stable iron-graphite
equilibrium diagram
These alloys solidify by first
forming primary austenite
Forming austenite and graphite
at the eutectic temperature of
2075oF

X&XI - 22
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Gray Cast Iron
The graphite appears as

many irregular, generally
elongated and curved
plates.
The flake are three
dimensional particles
X&XI - 23
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Gray Cast Iron

The strength the matrix
This matrix the condition of the
eutectoid cementite
The eutectoid cementite also
graphitizes, then the matrix will be
entirely ferritic
Graphitization of the eutectoid
cementite is prevented, the matrix
will be entirely pearlitic
The matrix:
(pearlite)(pearlite&ferrite)(ferrite)
Graphite-ferrite softest and
weakest
Combined carbon increased
strength and hardness increased
Graphite-pearlite strongest and
hardest

X&XI - 24
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Gray Cast Iron

X&XI - 25
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Gray Cast Iron

X&XI - 26
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Alloying Elements in Gray Cast Iron
Silicon
Increased fluidity
Graphitizer carbon is precipitated as primary graphite in the
form of flakes during solidification

X&XI - 27
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Sulfur
Restrict graphitization
Sulfur combined carbon hard, brittle white iron
Reduce fluidity
Responsible for the presence of blowholes in casting
Combined with iron FeS
Manganese
Weakly retard primary graphitization
Strong carbide stabilizer on eutectoid graphitization
Promote pearlite formation
Combined with sulfur MnS
Manganese content two or three times the sulfur content
X&XI - 28
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Phosphorus
Combined with iron
Fe3P (iron phosphide
called steadite)
Steadite is hard and
brittle
Increased steadite
increased its hardness,
brittleness, wear
resistance and decreased
machinability
Increased fluidity

X&XI - 29
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Heat Treatment of Gray Cast Iron

Stress relieving
The most frequently heat
treatment
Gray iron in the as-cast
residual stresses different
of cooling rates
Residual stresses reduce
strength, distortion, and
cracking
The temperature below
eutectoid temperature
Holding time 1 h &
temperature of 1100oF
stress relief over 85 percent

X&XI - 30
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

Annealing
Heating high enough to soften and improve machinability
Annealing temperature 1300 1400oF (recommended)
Held at temperature long enough to allow the graphitizing process to go to
completion
Normalizing
Treated to a temperature above the transformation range
Held at this temperature for a period of about 1 h/in. of maximum section
thickness
Cooled in still air to room temperature
Normalizing temperature 1625 - 1700oF
Used to enhance mechanical properties, such as hardness and tensile
strength
To restore as-cast properties that have been modified by another heat
treatment process
X&XI - 31
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

Hardening
Furnace-hardened from a temperature of 1575-1600 oF

Quenched from a suitable elevated temperature
Quenching medium: air, salt bath, oil or water
Oil through-hardening
Water too drastic and may cause cracking and distortion unless the
castings are massive and uniform in cross section
Water often used for quenching with flame and induction hardening
As-quenched brittle
Tempered from 300-1200oF to increase toughness and relieve stresses
Tempered improves strength and toughness but decreases hardness
Quenched and tempered not ordinarily used to increased strength
strength can be increased at less cost by reducing silicon and total carbon
content or by adding alloying elements
Quenched and tempered increase the resistance to wear and abrasion by
increasing the hardness
A structure consisting of graphite embedded in a hard martensitic
matrix
X&XI - 32
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Graphite Flake of Gray Cast Iron

Graphite flakes interrupt the continuity of the pearlitic matrix
the strength and ductility
Graphite flakes less damaging generally preferred
Hypoeutectic iron slow cooling graphitization & crystals of
primary austenite restricts the eutectic mixture or graphite to
the grain boundary graphite flakes few in number and coarse
Carbon content the amount of eutectic & graphite formed
weaken more than a smaller flake size can strengthen it
Silicon content (strong graphitizing) the amount of eutectic
formed reducing flake size the matrix will ferritic weak
casting
Reducing the size and improving the distribution of the graphite
flake addition of a small amount of material (inoculant)
Inoculating agents metallic calcium, aluminum, titanium,
zirconium, silicon carbide, calcium silicide, or combinations of these
X&XI - 33
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

The procedure for preparation and measurement of flake size is
given in ASTM Designation A247-67, 1971 Book of ASTM
Standards, Part 31
The measurement is made of the lengths of the largest graphite
flakes in a unetched section at 100X

X&XI - 34
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

X&XI - 35
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

Graphite flakes are arranged in the microstructure prepared by
the AFS and the ASTM

X&XI - 36
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

Type D and E
From the graphitization of a normal eutectic structure
Appear in irons of very high purity or in commercial irons that have been
cooled rather rapidly during solidification
Although the graphitic flake size is small, the interdendritic pattern and
high graphite content weaken the material
Type D and E undesirable in gray irons
When cooling rate is slower show complete divorcement of the eutectic
type D and E flake patterns do not occur
Type A
The most desirable flake pattern
This results from a completely divorced eutectic structure
The size of the individual graphite flakes is determined by the size of the
austenite crystals around which they form
X&XI - 37
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

Type B
Common only in the intermediate region of a chilled cast iron (mottled)
Consist of a mixture of gray and white cast iron
The cooling rate is maximum that would permit graphitization
Type C
The few large, straight graphite flakes present in type C always indicate that
the iron is hypereutectic in carbon content
Silicon and several other alloying elements reduce the carbon content of the
eutectic, and if they are present in sufficient amounts the eutectic
composition may be reduced to below 3.5 percent carbon

X&XI - 38
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Mechanical Properties & Application of Gray Cast Iron

The gray cast iron are classed in seven classes (Nos. 20, 25, 30,
35, 40, 50, 60) which give the minimum tensile strength of test
bars in thousand of pounds per square inch.
Class 20 minimum tensile strength of 20000 psi

X&XI - 39
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

Tensile strength
Tensile strength is important for part that
are subjected to static load in indirect
tension or bending. Such parts include
pressure vessels, housing, valves, fittings
and levers
Iron above 40000 psi in tensile strength are
usually considered high-strength irons and
are more expensive to produce and more
difficult to machine
Gray irons do not exhibit a well-defined yield point as do most mild steels
The stress-strain curve does not show a straight line portion; thus a definite
modulus of elasticity cannot be determined
Usual method are to determined the relative modulus at 25 percent of the
expected tensile strength, or the tangent modulus by drawing a tangent at
some given stress value
The percent elongation is small for all cast iron, rarely exceeding 3 to 4
percent, and the reduction of area is too slight to be appreciable
X&XI - 40
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

Compressive strength
Compressive strength is important when the gray iron is used for machinery
foundations or supports
Like all brittle material, the compressive strength of gray iron is much
greater than its tensile strength and is largely a function of the shearing
strength
Failure in compression usually occurs along an oblique plane unless the
specimen is long enough to allow failure by buckling
Torsional shear strength

Many grades of gray iron have higher torsional shear strength than some
grades of steel
This characteristic, along with low notch sensitivity, makes gray iron a
suitable material for types of shafting

X&XI - 41
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

Compressive strength
Compressive strength is important when the gray iron is used for machinery
foundations or supports
Like all brittle material, the compressive strength of gray iron is much
greater than its tensile strength and is largely a function of the shearing
strength
Failure in compression usually occurs along an oblique plane unless the
specimen is long enough to allow failure by buckling
Torsional shear strength

Many grades of gray iron have higher torsional shear strength than some
grades of steel
This characteristic, along with low notch sensitivity, makes gray iron a
suitable material for types of shafting

X&XI - 42
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

Hardness
The hardness is an average result of the soft graphite in the iron and
metallic matrix
Variation in graphite size and distribution will cause wide variations in
hardness (particularly Rockwell hardness)
The brinel tester, covering a larger area, tend to give a more accurate
hardness value than Rockwell test
Compressive strength steadily increases with increasing hardness
The microstructure is the primary factor in determining the hardness of gray
iron

X&XI - 43
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

X&XI - 44
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Chilled Cast Iron

Chilled-iron casting are made by casting the molten
metal against a metal chiller, resulting in a surface of
white cast iron
Case hard, abrasion-resistant white iron
Core softer gray iron
This case-core structure is obtained by careful control
of the overall alloy composition and adjustment of the
cooling rate
Normal cooling rate at the surface is just fast enough to
produce white iron while the slower cooling rate below
the surface will produce mottled or gray iron
If only selected area to be white iron, it is common
practice to use a composition which would normally
solidify as gray iron and employ metal liners (chills) to
accelerate the cooling rate of the selected areas
The depth of the white-iron layer is controlled by using
thin plates whenever a thin white-iron layer is desired
and heavier metal plates where the deeper chill is
necessary

X&XI - 45
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Chilled Cast Iron

Carbon
decreases the depth of chill and increases the hardness of the chilled zone
Silicon (graphitizer)
decreases the depth of chill
Manganese
decreased the depth of chill until the sulfur has been neutralized by formation
of manganese sulfide
Above this amount, manganese increases chill depth and hardness
Phosphorus
decreases the depth of chill
Nickel
reduces the chill depth, and its influence is about one-fourth that of silicon
Gradual increase in hardness until the nickel content reaches about 5 percent
Refines the carbide structure of the chill and the gray-iron structure below the
chill
X&XI - 46
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Chilled Cast Iron

Chromium
Because of the formation of chromium carbides, chromium is used in amount
of 1 to 4 percent in chilled irons to increase hardness and improve abrasion
resistance
Stabilizes carbide and suppresses the formation of graphite in heavy section
When added in amount of 12 to 35 percent, chromium will impart resistance
to corrosion and oxidation at elevated temperature
Cooper
In additions of less than 4 percent, decreases the depth of chill
In excess of this amount the chill depth and hardness increase
Reduces ration oh the mottled portion to the white-iron portion
Molybdenum
About one-third as effective as chromium in increasing the chill depth
Improves the resistance of the chilled face to spalling, pitting, chipping and
heat checking
X&XI - 47
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Chilled Cast Iron

A constant chill depth may be obtained by using a combination of
alloying elements that have opposite effect
Since nickel reduces chill depth, it common practice to add
chromium, which increases chill depth, to neutralize the nickel and
result in a constant chill depth
Chilled-iron casting is used for railway-car wheels, crushing rolls,
stamp shoes and dies, sprockets, plowshares and many other heavyduty machinery parts

X&XI - 48
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Nodular Cast Iron
Carbon 3.0-4.0 %
Silicon 1.8-2.8 %
Manganese
0.1-1.00
Sulfur 0.03% max
Phosphorus
0.1% max
Known as ductile iron, spheroidal graphite iron and

spherulitic iron
Graphite is present as tiny balls or spheroids
The compact spheroids interrupt the continuity of the
matrix much less than graphite flakes higher strength
and toughness compared with gray iron
X&XI - 49
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Nodular Cast Iron

X&XI - 50
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Nodular Cast Iron
Nodular cast iron differs from malleable iron in that is

usually obtained as a result of solidification and does
not require heat treatment
Nodular spheroids carbon
Malleable irregular temper carbon
Spheroidal graphite particles form during solidification
because of the presence of a small amount of certain
alloying elements, usually magnesium or cerium
Since these elements have a strong affinity for sulfur,
the base iron alloy sulfur content must be below 0.015
percent desulfurized
X&XI - 51
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Nodular Cast Iron

The amount of ferrite
in the as-cast matrix
depends on
composition and rate
of cooling
Nodular irons with a
matrix having a
maximum of 10
percent pearlite are
known as ferritic irons
This structure gives
maximum ductility,
toughness and
machinability

X&XI - 52
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Nodular Cast Iron

X&XI - 53
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Nodular Cast Iron

Pearlite can be produced as cast or by normalizing
Normalizing is carried out by air cooling from temperature of
1600 to 1650oF
Peralitic ductile irons are stronger but less ductile than ferrite
irons
A martensitic matrix may be obtained by quenching in oil or
water from 1600 to 1700oF. The quenched structures are usually
tempered, after hardening, to the desired strength and hardness
levels
Austenitic ductile irons are highly alloyed types which retain
austenitic structure down to at least -75 oF. These irons are of
interest because of their relatively high corrosion resistance and
good creep properties at elevated temperatures
X&XI - 54
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Nodular Cast Iron

X&XI - 55
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Nodular Cast Iron
Application
Agricultural: tractor and implement parts
Automotive and diesel: crankshafts, pistons and cylinder heads;
electrical fittings, switch boxes, motor frames, and circuit breaker
parts
Mining: hoist drums, drive pulley, flywheels and elevator buckets
Steel mill: work rolls, furnace doors, table rolls and bearings
Tool and die: wrenches, levers, handles, clamp frames, chuck bodies
and miscellaneous dies for shaping steel, aluminum, brass,
bronze, and titanium

X&XI - 56
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko
Alloy Cast Iron
Added elements in sufficient amount to produce

modification in the physical or mechanical properties
Resistance to corrosion, heat and wear
To improve mechanical properties
One of the important reasons for alloying is accelerate

or retard graphitization
Elements obtained from raw material, such as silicon,
manganese, sulfur, and phosphorus, are not considered
alloy additions
The most common alloying elements are chromium,
copper, molybdenum, nickel and vanadium
X&XI - 57
METALLURGY II
Wahyu Wijanarko

X&XI - 58
METALLURGY II
(RM-1421)
MINGGU XII
CORROSION
Dosen:
Wahyu Wijanarko
Mechanical Engineering
ITS- Surabaya
Jadwal kuliah :
Tiap hari Selasa pukul 19.40 21.20 Ruang c-119

X&amp;XI Cast Iron

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

X&amp;XI Cast Iron

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

METALLURGY II

Phase Diagram of Cast Iron

Family of ferrous alloys

Wide range of strengths and hardness

Classifications of Cast Iron

White cast iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Chemical Composition of Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Phase Diagram of Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Phase Diagram of Cast Iron

Bila terjadi pendinginan besi tuang melalui garis

Schematic of Types of Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Schematic of Types of Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Schematic of Types of Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

White Cast Iron

Solidification rate fast enough

White Cast Iron

High compressive strength and excellent wear resistance

White cast iron Malleable cast iron (malleabilization)

White Cast Iron

Pada x1 : -fasa liquid

White Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Malleable Cast Iron

White cast iron Malleable cast iron (malleabilization)

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Malleable Cast Iron

Malleable Cast Iron

Malleable Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Malleable Cast Iron

Malleable Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Malleable Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Gray Cast Iron

Carbon in the iron separates or graphitizes during

Gray Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Gray Cast Iron

The graphite appears as

Gray Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Gray Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Gray Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Alloying Elements in Gray Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Alloying Elements in Gray Cast Iron

Alloying Elements in Gray Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Heat Treatment of Gray Cast Iron

|Jurusan Teknik Mesin ITS|

Heat Treatment of Gray Cast Iron

Heat Treatment of Gray Cast Iron

Furnace-hardened from a temperature of 1575-1600 oF

Graphite Flake of Gray Cast Iron

Graphite Flake of Gray Cast Iron

X&XI Cast Iron

X&XI Cast Iron