Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Chapter 6 Outline
Mechanical Properties of Metals
How do metals respond to external loads?
Stress and Strain
Tension
Compression
Shear
Torsion
Elastic deformation
Plastic Deformation
Yield Strength
Tensile Strength
Ductility
Toughness
Hardness
Not tested: true stress-true stain relationships, resilience, details
of the different types of hardness tests, variability of material
properties
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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Introduction

Stress, (MPa)

How materials deform as a function

of applied load
Testing methods and language for
mechanical properties of materials.

Strain, (mm / mm)

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Types of Loading
Tensile

Compressive

Shear
Torsion

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Stress
(For Tension and Compression)

To compare specimens , the load is

calculated per unit area.
Stress:

= F / Ao

F: is load
A0: cross-sectional area

A0 perpendicular to
application of the load.

before

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Strain
(For Tension and Compression)

Strain:

= l / lo ( 100 %)

l: change in length
lo: original length.

Stress / strain = /

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Shear and Torsion

Shear stress: = F / Ao
F is applied parallel to upper and
lower faces each having area A0.

Shear strain:

= tan ( 100 %)

is strain angle

Shear

Torsion

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Torsion
Torsion: like shear.

Load: applied torque, T

Strain: angle of twist, .

Shear

Torsion

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Stress-Strain Behavior
(Tension)
Elastic
Plastic

Elastic deformation
Reversible:

Stress

( For small strains)

Stress
removed

material returns to
original size

Plastic deformation
Irreversible:
Strain

Stress
removed

material does not return

to original dimensions.

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Elastic deformation
Gives Hooke's law for Tensile Stress

= E
E = Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity
(same units as , N/m2 or Pa)

Stress

Unload
Slope = modulus of
elasticity E

Load
Strain

Higher E higher stiffness

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Nonlinear elastic behavior

In some materials (many polymers,
concrete...), elastic deformation is not
linear, but it is still reversible.

/ = tangent modulus at 2

Definitions of E
/ = secant modulus
between origin and 1

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Elastic Deformation: Atomic scale

Chapter 2: Potentials and Force

Force, F

High
modulus

Strongly
bonded

Attractive is
positive here

Separation, r

Low
modulus
Weakly
bonded

E ~ (dF/dr) at ro
F= (sign) dV/dr
E~ curvature of potential
at equilibrium, r0

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Anelasticity
(time dependence of elastic deformation)
Have assumed elastic deformation is time
independent
(applied stress produces instantaneous
strain)
Elastic deformation takes time; can
continue even after load release.
This behavior is known as anelasticity.
Small effect in metals; can be significant
for polymers (visco-elastic).

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Poissons ratio
Unloaded

Loaded

Tension shrink laterally

Compression bulge.

Ratio of lateral to axial strain called

Poisson's ratio .
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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Poissons ratio

y
x

z
z
dimensionless.
Sign:
lateral strain opposite to
longitudinal strain
Theoretical value:
for isotropic material: 0.25
Maximum value: 0.50,
Typical value: 0.24 - 0.30
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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Shear Modulus
y

Unloaded

Zo

Loaded

Shear stress to shear strain:

= G ,
= tan = y / zo

G is Shear Modulus (Units: N/m2)

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Elastic Modulus
Poissons Ratio
and
Shear Modulus
For isotropic material:
E = 2G(1+) G ~ 0.4E
Single crystals are usually elastically
anisotropic
Elastic behavior varies with
crystallographic direction.
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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Plastic deformation
(Tension)

Plastic deformation:
stress not proportional to strain
deformation is not reversible
deformation occurs by breaking and rearrangement of atomic bonds (crystalline
materials by motion of defects)
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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Tensile properties: Yielding

Elastic Plastic

Stress

Yield point: P
Where strain deviates from
being proportional to stress
(the proportional limit)

Strain

Yield strength: y
0.002 Permanent strain= 0.002
A measure of resistance
to plastic deformation
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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Tensile properties: Yielding

Stress

Strain

For a low-carbon steel, the stress vs. strain

curve includes both an upper and lower
yield point.
The yield strength is defined in this case as
the average stress at the lower yield point.
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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Tensile Strength
If stress maintained specimen will break

Stress,

Fracture
Strength

Necking

Tensile strength =
max. stress
(~ 100 - 1000 MPa)
Strain,

Yield stress, y , usually more important than

tensile strength. Once yield stress has been passed,
structure has deformed beyond acceptable limits.
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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Tensile properties: Ductility

Ductility Deformation at Fracture

percent elongation
or
percent reduction in
area

lf l0
100
%EL
l0
A0 Af
%RA
A0

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100

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Mechanical Properties of Metals

Yield strength and tensile strength vary

with thermal and mechanical treatment,
impurity levels, etc.
Variability related to behavior of
dislocations (Elastic moduli are relatively
insensitive)
Yield and tensile strengths and modulus of
elasticity:
Decrease
with
increasing
temperature.
Ductility increases with temperature.
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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Toughness

Toughness: ability to absorb energy up to

fracture (Area under the strain-stress curve
up to fracture)
Units: the energy per unit volume, e.g. J/m3
Can be measured by an impact test (Chapter 8).
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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

True Stress and Strain

True Stress
T = F/Ai T = ln(li/lo)

= F/Ao = (li-lo/lo)

True Strain

True stress: load divided by actual area in the

necked-down region, continues to rise to the point
of fracture, in contrast to the engineering stress.
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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation

y
y

Deformed plastically, stress released, material has

permanent strain.
If stress is reapplied, material again responds
elastically at the beginning up to a new yield point
that is higher than the original yield point.
Elastic strain before reaching the yield point is
called elastic strain recovery.
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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Hardness (I)
Hardness measure of materials resistance
to localized plastic deformation
(e.g. dent or scratch)
Mohs scale ability of a material to scratch
another material: from 1 (softest = talc) to 10
(hardest = diamond).
Variety of hardness tests
(Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, etc.).
Small indenter (sphere, cone, or
pyramid) forced into surface of
material
under
controlled
magnitude and rate of loading.
Depth or size of indentation is
measured.
Tests are approximate, but
popular because they are easy and
non-destructive (except for the
small dent).
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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Tensile strength (103 psi)

Tensile strength (MPa)

Hardness (II)

Brinell hardness number

Tensile strength and hardness degree of

resistance to plastic deformation.

Hardness proportional to tensile strength

Proportionality constant depends on material.
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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Stress

What are the limits of safe deformation?

For practical engineering design,

the yield strength is usually the
important parameter
Strain

Design stress:
d = N c : c = maximum anticipated stress,
N the design factor > 1.
Make sure d < y, safe or working stress:
w = y/N where N is factor of safety > 1.

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Summary
Make sure you understand language and concepts:

Anelasticity
Ductility
Elastic deformation
Elastic recovery
Engineering strain
Engineering stress
Hardness
Modulus of elasticity
Plastic deformation
Poissons ratio
Proportional limit
Shear
Tensile strength
Toughness
Yielding
Yield strength

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Reading for next class:

Chapter 7: Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms

Dislocations and Plastic Deformation

Motion of dislocations in response to stress
Slip Systems
Plastic deformation in
single crystals
polycrystalline materials

Strengthening mechanisms
Grain Size Reduction
Solid Solution Strengthening
Strain Hardening
Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
Optional reading (Part that is not covered / not tested):
7.7 Deformation by twinning
In our discussion of slip systems, 7.4, we will not get into
direction and plane nomenclature
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