Boiler water treatment

Objectives of boiler water

treatment
Control of
Deposits that could insulate heat
transfer surfaces
Corrosion that could cause tube
failures and system shut down
Steam purity that could cause
equipment and piping damage
AND from process
contamination
Blow down

II: Important water

parameters and its
significance
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Hardness
Alkalinity
pH
TDS
Silica
Suspended solids
Dissolved oxygen
If there is a difference exists between operating value and target value, then
decreasing or increasing blow down and adjusting chemical dosages will be done

1. Hardness
Total hardness is the combined concentration
of dissolved calcium and magnesium salts.
Alkaline or temporary hardness is caused by
bicarbonates, carbonates or hydroxides.
Bicarbonates which predominate in most
natural waters are easily broken down when
the temperature is raised.
Non-alkaline or permanent hardness is caused
mainly by chlorides, sulphates and nitrates.
Water hardness is the most common
contributor to boiler scaling

Water Hardness
classification
Water
hardness
classification
Soft
Moderate
Hard
Very Hard

mg/L or ppm
as CaCO3
0-60
61-120
121-180
> 180

Seawater has a hardness level of 500 mg L-1.

2. Alkalinity
The extent to which a solution is alkaline
(i.e. has a pH value greater than 7)
It is a measure of its hydroxide (caustic),
carbonate and bicarbonate and hydroxides
content. Expressed in terms of calcium
carbonate content.
These bases break down to form carbon dioxide
in steam, which is a major factor in the corrosion
of condensate lines.
High Alkalinity also contributes to foaming and
carryover in boilers.

3. pH
is a measure of a solution's acidity
In water, small numbers of water molecules (H2O) will
disassociate into hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions
(OH-).
Other compounds entering the water may react with these,
leaving an imbalance in the numbers of hydrogen and
hydroxide ions.
When more hydrogen ions react, more hydroxide ions are
left in solution and the water is basic; when more
hydroxide ions react, more hydrogen ions are left and the
water is acidic.

Measure of pH
pH is measured on a logarithmic scale between 1
and 14 with 1 being extremely acid, 7 neutral, and
14 extremely basic. The more extreme the pH, the
more likely corrosion problems are to occur
Because it is a logarithmic scale there is a ten fold
increase in acidity for a change of one unit of pH,
e.g. 5 is 100 times more acid than 7 on the pH
scale

pH = - log [H+] = - log [1 x 10-7] = -[-7] = 7

4.TotalDissolvedSolids(TDS)
Thetotaldissolvedsolids(TDS)inwaterconsist
ofinorganicsaltsanddissolvedmaterials.
Innaturalwaters,saltsarechemicalcompounds
comprisedof
Anions()suchascarbonates,chlorides,sulphates,and
nitrates(primarilyingroundwater),and
Cations(+)suchaspotassium(K),magnesium(Mg),
calcium(Ca),andsodium(Na).

Measure of TDS
It is a measure of the total amount of solids in
solution. Expressed as parts per million (ppm).
Generally estimated on-site by measuring
electrical conductivity. If the boiler water
conductivity is measured in-situ, then allowance
should be made for temperature and pH effects
as the hot, highly alkaline nature of boiler water
would give a falsely high reading. A substantial
part of TDS is due to alkalinity.
If the design values for TDS are exceeded, carryover from the boiler will increase leading to a
bad steam quality.

5. Silica
Silica is found as dissolved silicate
and in a suspended complex form.
It can combine with other compounds
to give scales that are strongly
insulating and difficult to remove and
cause high resistance to heat transfer

6. Suspended solids (SS)

/ Turbidity
Turbidity is the
amount of
particulate matter
that is suspended
in water.

Nephelometric
Turbidity Units

Turbid include: clay ,silt ,finely divided organic and

inorganic matter ,soluble organic compounds & organisms.
Removed by, coagulation , sedimentation and

7. Dissolved gases
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are the most
important.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is an important factor
in determining the corrosiveness of water.
The solubility of oxygen in water depends on
temperature and pressure.
Dissolved carbon dioxide gives carbonic acid.
Even this weak acid can lower the pH to values
where the water becomes highly corrosive.
The type of boiler, pressure and heat flux
dictate the boiler water chemistry that can be
used to achieve the required steam purity and
efficiency.

TYPES OF IMPURITIES IN WATER

Sl
No
1.

Nature
Soluble
Ionic

Impurities
- Cations: Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium
Ammonium, Iron, Manganese etc.
Anions:

2.

Insoluble
-Nonionic

Bicarbonates,
Carbonates,
Nitrates, Chlorides, Dissolve-silica,
etc.
Suspended
matter,
Turbidity,
Silt,
Colloidal-silica.

Gaseous

Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, chlorine.

4.

Others

Color, Oil, Organics.

III : Boiler water problems

Corrosion
Localized attack on metal can result in a forced
shutdown.
Because boiler systems are constructed primarily of
carbon steel and the heat transfer medium is water, the
potential for corrosion is high.
The relative rate of corrosion of steel varies with boiler
water pH and the level of dissolved oxygen.
Good water treatment aims to keep the pH within the
safe range of pH 8.2 - 12.5 while addition of oxygen
scavengers prevents iron being oxidised to ferric
oxide or rust.

pH Vs Corrosion

Relative rate of corrosion of steel with boiler water pH

CORROSION
due to
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO)

4Fe + 3O2
Steel + Dissolved
Oxygen

2FeO3
Iron Oxide (Rust)

Corrosion
due to
Dissolved Carbon-dioxide
(i)

Fe + CO2 + H2O
Iron + Carbon-dioxide + Water

(ii)

4FeCO3+O2 + 10H2O
Iron Carborate + Oxygen + Water
Carbon-dioxide

(iii)

4Fe(OH)3
Iron Hydroxide

FeCO 3 + H2
Iron Carbonate +Hydrogen

4Fe(OH) 3 + 4H2O+CO2
Iron Hydroxide+Water +

2Fe 2O3

+ 6 H2O

Iron Oxide + Water

Unstable salts like Magnesium Chloride, Calcium,

Chloride, Magnesium nitrate, Calcium nitrate and
Magnesium Sulphate are hydrolyzed by the water in
the boiler to form corrosive acids, like Hydrochloric
acid and Nitric Acid in the following manner.
1. MgCl2 + 2H2O

Mg(OH)2 + 2HCL

2. Cacl2 + 2H2O

Ca(OH)2 + 2HCL

3. Mg(NO3)2 + 2H2O

Mg(OH)2 + 2HNO3

4. Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O

Ca(OH)2 + 2HNO3

5. MgSO4 + 2 NaCL

MgCL2 + Na2SO4

Oxygen Pitting of mild steel

pipe

Oxygen pitting is localised corrosion characterised by small pits or h

It is found mainly in steel condensate systems, but hot water system
idle steam boilers can also suffer such attacks.

Corrosion in boiler
Corrosion
in boiler
systems
can
quickly
result in
tube
failure
and plant
shutdown

Caustic Attack
If too much alkali is added or allowed to
concentrate, it can cause corrosion of the boiler
metal.
The attack may involve local dissolution of the
metal, usually on high heat transfer surfaces
which have become fouled, or cracking of the
metal.
Caustic cracking of stressed steel can occur
when the concentration of caustic is greater than
50,000 mg/L
Leads to sudden rupture and explosion of boilers.

Carbonic Acid Corrosion

Carbonic acid corrosion causes general thinning of pipe
walls
The corrosion product is soluble in the acidic water and is
thus carried back to the feed tank with condensate return.
On entering the boiler, this contamination can cause
fouling of heat transfer surfaces and loss of fuel efficiency.
Inhibition of corrosion in condensate systems is needed
Other parts of the boiler system, e.g. feed tank, feed lines.
pumps and valves, are also susceptible to attack and
measures to inhibit corrosion should be taken in these
areas.

Scaling
Scaling in the boiler occurs when the solubility of
a compound is exceeded. either through
chemical reaction, increased concentration or
higher temperatures.
Example: calcium and magnesium salts
dissolved in the feedwater become less soluble
as the feedwater is heated and eventually
precipitate out. Hardness contributes
significantly to scaling, particularly when water
is heated.

At the temperature prevailing in the

steam boilers, both calcium and
magnesium bicarbonates break
down to form calcium carbonate and
magnesium hydroxide scale.
Heat
Ca (HCO3)2

CaCO3

+ H2O + CO2

Mg (HCO3)2

MgCO 3 + H2O + CO2

The sodium bicarbonate is decomposed

into the caustic soda which soluble and
hence it remains in solution.
2NaHCO3

Na2CO3 + H20

Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2

2NaOH + CO2

Scaling
Boiler scale and deposits form when
impurities precipitate on hot boiler tubes.
This hard shell is called scale
and is often found on the
outside of the fire tubes

Fire Tube Exterior

Water Tube Interior

Deposit-Related
problem
Deposits (Scale) in boilers cause
two major problems. i.e. fouling of
heat transfer surfaces and
restriction of water flow.
SOLUTIONS :
Removal of hardness salts by external
treatment.
Scale prevention by using internal
inhibitors.

Certain deposits can cause metal

temperatures to rise to dangerously high
levels where metal distortion can occur.

Metal over heating

Steam Contamination
Steam purity refers to the contamination of
the steam by solids, non-aqueous liquids or
volatile compounds.
It is not the same as steam quality, which is
concerned with the amount of moisture
from partial condensation in the steam
SOLUTIONS:
Antifoams can be used to prevent foaming
Control boiler water TDS to avoid carry-over.

Foaming

In a boiler steam bubbles are continually bursting

at the steam water interface and ejecting boiler
water drops into the steam space.

As the rate of steaming increases a point is reached

where the steam bubbles are arriving at the surface
faster than they are being removed, they
accumulate as foam.

Steam released from the bursting bubbles move

towards the steam outlet carrying with it smaller
water droplets and taking with it any foam.

The steam also drags the surface of the boiler water

towards the steam outlet so that the water level at
that point can be higher than elsewhere, depending
on the positions of the level controls this may
cause the feed pumps to deliver water and thus
raising the water level

Carryover
Carryover is water leaving the boiler
with the steam.

It can be caused by foaming,

priming or mechanical inefficiencies.

The effect of impurities in the boiler

water is to increase the surface
tension of the water and so inhibit
the separation of steam from the
water, this tends to cause foam to
form.
Good TDS control is required to
keep the solids levels below that at
which this can occur.

normal
buble

carry over
buble

Priming
As the water level is raised the
volume of the steam space is
decreased, the speed of the steam
across the surface is increased
drawing foam and water droplets
towards the steam outlet.
A sudden increase in steam demand
can cause a slug of boiler water to
enter the steam outlet.
This is known as priming.
Operation of the boiler below its
design pressure will also produce a
similar effect.

Boiler water carry-over

Boiler water carry-over, which reduces
heat transfer efficiency and is caused by
poor boiler operation,
e.g. steaming below design pressure, high
water levels. steam demand swings and a
sudden reduction in pressure.

Excessive alkalinity, total dissolved solids

or suspended solids can lead to foaming
and increased carry-over. Organics, oil or
surface-active agents also cause foaming.

IV : TYPES OF WATER TREATMENT

& Choice of water treatment
Impurities
Types of
Impuritie
s

Insoluble

Settling
Types of
treatment

Soluble

Clarification
Filtration

Gaseous

De-aeration
for oxygen
in De aerator

Activated carbon in
pressure filter
for chlorine.

CO2 in de gessor tower in

DM plant

Softening

Dealkaliser

Demineralization

Reverse Osmosis

Boiler Plant Flow Diagram

The choice of water treatment must always

be consistent with the individual
requirements of the plant in question and
the processes served by the equipment

EXTERNAL WATER
TREATMENT
Good external water treatment saves
significant amounts of energy.
Removing hardness will avoid scale.
Reducing feedwater TDS will reduce
blowdown and thus save energy.
Removing alkalinity, dissolved oxygen and
carbon dioxide will reduce the risk of
corrosion.
Lower oxygen levels in the feedwater
mean lower chemical costs.

External treatment
(involves complete or partial removal of

one or more types of

impurity).

Technology
1.Base
exchange
softening

Purpose
Using ion exchange to convert
calcium and magnesium salts that
would cause scale into sodium salts
which do not precipitate, i.e.
removal of hardness.

2.Dealkalisat Reduction in TDS by removal of

ion
alkalinity.
3.Demineralisat
ion

Removal of dissolved solids and

silica by ion exchange.

4.Reverse
osmosis

Reduction of TDS and silica by a

membrane process

5.De-

Removal of dissolved oxygen and

1. Base exchange
softening

Generally used for: low &

medium pressure Boilers
Softening reaction:
Na2R+Ca(HCO3)2>CaR+2Na(HCO3)
Regeneration reaction
CaR + 2 NaCl >Na2R + CaCl2

Water softeners
The water softeners "Ion
Exchange" process to
convert the hard water
ions of calcium and
magnesium to sodium
ions.
The resultant water is
less than 4 ppm total
hardness
Capacity upto 5-50m3/hr

2. Dealkalisation
Dealkalisation reduces TDS by removing alkaline salts.
Generally used to treat the feedwater for low and
medium pressure boilers and when a very high percentage of
make-up water is to be used.
In a weak acid cation exchanger. the less strongly alkaline
impurities - carbonate and bicarbonate ions are replaced
by positively charged hydrogen ions. The carbonic acid
that is produced is removed in a degassing tower.
If pH is acceptable and hardness has been reduced
sufficiently, the degassed water can be used directly.
If not; pH adjustment and base exchange softening are
necessary.

Dealkalizer

3. Demineralisation

This process will remove virtually all the salts. It involves

passing the raw water through both cation and anion
exchange resins and produces very high quality water
containing almost no dissolved solids. It is used for very high
pressure boilers such as those in power stations.

If the raw water has a high amount of suspended solids this

will quickly foul the ion exchange material, drastically
increasing operating costs. In these cases, some pretreatment of the raw water such as clarification or filtration
may be necessary.

Demineralisation

Demineralisation

Demineralisation
Passage of the water through the cation
exchanger produces a solution of dilute acids,
which are exchanged by hydroxide in the anion
exchanger to give water.
If carbonates and bicarbonates are present in the
water, removal of carbonic acid in an intermediate
degassing tower will reduce the requirement for
hydroxide exchange in the anion bed.
The cation and anion exchangers are regenerated
with mineral acid and sodium hydroxide
respectively.
used for high pressure, high heat flux and oncethrough boilers.

4. Reverse
Osmosis

water is pumped through a semi-permeable

membrane where dissolved solids and silicate are
retained.
Purified water passes through the membrane as the
permeate. This is often acidic and pH adjustment is
required to protect downstream equipment from

5. Deaeration
Used to remove
dissolved oxygen
from feed water,
either by thermal,
chemical or
mechanical means.
Oxygen is driven off
as the temperature
increases.

Figure 2.9 Deaerator

Free carbon dioxide is also removed in the deaerator. thus reducing carbonic acid level (H2CO3).
Lower oxygen levels in the feed water reduce the
subsequent amount of oxygen scavengers needed

Choice of external
treatment Methods
The factors affecting the selection of
technology :

quality of input water;

treated water quality required:
volumes required;
flow rates (available and required);
water pressure;
storage facilities;
type of boiler plant;
steam or hot water duty;
industry sector.

Economics of Water
treatment
The capital and operating costs for external
water treatment vary according to the plant
type and duty.
raw water analysis
treated water specification
chemical and effluent charges
temperature
flow rate
energy consumption
maintenance costs.

Effectiveness in
Removing Impurities

INTERNAL WATER
TREATMENT
Selection of the most appropriate treatment regime for a
particular boiler system saves both energy and money.
Careful control of boiler water chemistry saves money
through reduced consumption of energy, water and
treatment chemicals.
Controlled dosage saves energy and avoids wasting
expensive treatment chemicals.
Preventing scale formation, minimising silicate and other
deposits, eliminating dissolved oxygen, neutralising
dissolved carbon dioxide and minimising concentration
effects all lead to more efficient boiler operation.

Internal treatment

Internal treatments involve the addition of chemical(s)

to the feedwater to:
prevent scale formation and /or oxygen corrosion:
protect the metal surfaces from acid or alkaline attack;
ensure that any salts that precipitate out do not adhere
to the heat transfer surfaces and thus reduce efficiency
ensure that precipitated salts can be easily removed by
blowing down.

Never use more of these chemicals than is absolutely necessary.

Not only are the chemicals themselves expensive, but they also
add to the TDS content of the boiler water.

Preventing Scale
Formation
Scale prevention is based upon
controlled precipitation of hardness
as a fine; mobile sludge that can
be removed during bottom
blowdown
Achieved by the application of the
carbonate or phosphate cycle
(depending on system pressure).

Carbonate Cycle
The formation of calcium sulphate scale, which is difficult
to remove was historically prevented by using a controlled
reserve of carbonate and hydroxide ions in the boiler
water. It is suitable for boilers operating up to about 10
bar.
Above this pressure, thermal breakdown of carbonate
prevents adequate reserves being maintained.
In the carbonate cycle. any hardness entering the boiler
precipitates as calcium carbonate or magnesium
hydroxide. The natural alkalinity of the feedwater may be
sufficient to cause precipitation; if not. carbonate or
hydroxide are added to make up the deficit.
Other additives - tannins, lignins, starches and a wide
variety of synthetic polymers - can be used to improve the
mobility of the precipitates and thus enhance their
removal by bottom blowdown.

Phosphate Cycle
Since carbonate breakdown increases with temperature,
the phosphate cycle was developed for use at higher
pressures. Phosphate is used to precipitate any calcium
present. For magnesium, the preferred precipitant is
hydroxide alkalinity, which yields magnesium hydroxide
This method of scale prevention involves a controlled
reserve of soluble phosphate and maintenance of caustic
alkalinity at a specific pH in the boiler water to
precipitate hardness as a mobile sludge. The phosphate
is normally added as trisodium phosphate, which also
adds alkalinity. However, if a reduction in alkalinity is
required. salts such as disodium phosphate or
monosodium phosphate can be used as these are acidic.
Phosphate salts are normally dosed directly into the
boiler to avoid precipitation in feed lines.

Other Deposits
Preventing silicate deposits
Keeping the silica in solution by
maintaining the appropriate silica:
caustic alkalinity ratio.

Preventing other deposits

Addition of specific dispersants.

Oxygen removal
Adding oxygen scavengers.

Minimising other problems

Minimising carbon dioxide corrosion
in condensate systems
Neutralisation or removal of dissolved
carbon dioxide (carbonic acid) by tight
control of alkalinity and use of
nullifying or filming amine treatment.

Avoiding carry-over
Use of antifoams to prevent foam
production

4. Monitoring and standards

Correct sampling and accurate analysis is an
extremely important part of boiler water treatment
Proper training of operators in sampling and testing
techniques is therefore essential.
Routine boiler control parameters include pH, TDS.
hardness, alkalinity, chloride and treatment
chemicals
Boiler water analysis is used to monitor and control
water treatment programmes:
boiler water concentration.

Typical sampling points in

a simple steam boiler
circuit

ASME Guidelines for Water Quality in Modern

Industrial Water Tube Boilers
for Reliable Continuous Operation
Boiler Feed Water
Drum
Pressure
(psi)

Boiler Water
Silica
(ppm SiO2)

Total
Alkalinity**
(ppm CaCO3)

Specific
Conductance
(micromhos/cm)
(unneutralized)

Iron
(ppm Fe)

Copper
(ppm Cu)

Total
Hardness
(ppm CaCO3)

0-300

0.100

0.050

0.300

150

700*

7000

301-450

0.050

0.025

0.300

90

600*

6000

451-600

0.030

0.020

0.200

40

500*

5000

601-750

0.025

0.020

0.200

30

400*

4000

751-900

0.020

0.015

0.100

20

300*

3000

901-1000

0.020

0.015

0.050

200*

2000

1001-1500

0.010

0.010

0.0

0***

150

1501-2000

0.010

0.010

0.0

0***

100

Maximum limits for boiler water constituents

Boiler
pressure
(psig)

Total solids
(ppm)

Alkalinity
(ppm)

Suspended
solids (ppm)

Silica* (ppm)

0-300

3500

700

300

125

301-450

3000

600

250

90

451-600

2500

500

150

50

601-750

2000

400

100

35

751-900

1500

300

60

20

901-1000

1250

250

40

1001-1500

1000

200

20

2.5

1501-2000

750

150

10

Over 2000

500

100

0.5

* Silica limits based on limiting silica in steam to 0.02-0.03 ppm

BOILER WATER QUALITY

PARAMETERS
PARA
METERS

DEARAT
OR/F.W.

BOILER
DRUM

Sat/S.H
STEAM

EFFECTS IF INCREASES

EFFECTS IF
DECREASES

pH

8.8-9.2

9.8-10.2

8-9

Caustic enbritlement

T.H.

Nil

Nil

Nil

Scale Formation

---

V/cm

<0.5

<200

<0.3

Indications of impurities

---

SiO2

<0.02

<5.0

<0.02

Scale Formation, Carry over

PO4

Nil

5-20

Nil

Caustic enbritlement, Increases

T.D.S.

T.D.S.

Nil

50-100

Nil

Priming & Foaming

N2H4

0.01-0.02

Nil

Nil

Ammonium Salts

D.O.

<0.007

Nil

Nil

Corrosion

Better

Iron

<0.01

Nil

Nil

Scale Formation

Better

Cl2

Nil

Nil

Nil

Corrosion,Hydrogen damage

Better

Oil & grease

Nil

Nil

Nil

Priming & Foaming

Better

Causes corrosion

Better
Corrosion
Better
Corrosion

BOILER CONTROL AND

BLOWDOWN
Keep control of boiler water
treatment through a good
sampling and testing routine.
Minimising blowdown saves energy
and improves efficiency.

TDS reduction can be

controlled manually or
automatically.

Internal Water
Treatment for Idle
Boilers
Boilers are sometimes left standing idle and
cold for maintenance, operational or other
reasons. In such circumstances, there is a
risk of corrosion occumng. Any corrosion is
likely to be localised as pitting or water line
attack.
A boiler can he kept full of water or with a
nitrogen blanket for up to three months. If
there is a risk of freezing the boiler should
be kept dry.

Wet Storage
Raise the water level to eliminate air
spaces.
Increase oxygen scavenger levels to 20 - 25
times the normal dose.
Adjust the pH to 11.
If a non-drainable superheater is present:
fill with demineralised water;
add a volatile oxygen scavenger and alkali to
give the same values as for the boiler section;
take precautions to avoid ingress of boiler water.

Nitrogen blanketing may prove a useful

additional measure in some cases.

Dry Storage
Drain the boiler , eliminating water pools.
Dry the internal surfaces by blowins warm, dry air
through all the waterways.
Store the boiler with heaters and manhole doors open
for ventilation.
For closed storage, place a desiccant and possibly a
vapour phase inhibitor inside the boiler before it is
sealed.
Consider using nitrogen blanketing to prevent ingress
of moist air.
Check chemical levels and desiccant regularly. Top up
or change as necessary.
Take adequate precautions to prevent corrosion of the
fireside.

CHARATERISTICS OF BOILDER FEED WATER

Sl.
No.

Pressure at Boiler Outlet Medium Pressure

(KG/CM2)/LBS/SQ.IN)
20/300

40/600

60/900

8/1200

8.5 to 9.5

8.5 to 9.5

8.5 to9.5

8.5 to 9.5

0.5

nil

pH

Total Hardness (as CaCO3) 10

Mg/1 (Max)

Dissolved Oxygen (as O2)

mg/1 (Max)

0.05

0.02

0.01

0.01

Iron and Copper mg/1

(Max)

0.05

0.05

0.02

0.02

Silica (as Si O2)Mg/1 (Max)

1.0

0.1

0.1

Oil

Nil

Nil

Nil

Nil

CHARATERISTICS OF BOILDER FEED WATER

Sl.
No.

Pressure at Boiler Outlet

(KG/CM2)/LBS/SQ.IN)

Medium Pressure

20/300

40/600

60/900

8/1200

pH

10.5 to 11.5

10 to 11

9.8 to10.5

9.8 to 10.2

Total Alkalinity (as CaCO3)

700

500

300

Mg/1 (Max)
3

Caustic Alkalinity (as CaCO3) mg/1 (Max)

300

150

60

30

Phosphate (as Na3PO4) mg/1 (Max)

50 to 100

30 to 70

20 to 50

10 to 45

Silica (as Si O2)Mg/1 (Max)

Less than half

the caustic
alkalinity

Less than
half the
caustic
alkalinity

20

10

Sulphite (as Na2SO3)mg.1 (or)

Hydrazine (as N2H4) mg/1

30 to 50

20 to 40

0.05 to0.3

0.05 to 0.1

Chloride (as Cl) mg/1 (max)

Dissolved Solids mg/1 (max)

3000

2000

1200

700

Suspended Solids mg/1 (max)

200

50

Case study
BOILER FEED WATER ANALYSIS
Description
Parameter

Boiler feed water

Boiler blow down water

Recommended

Actual

Recommended

Actual

8.5 - 9.5

9.0 - 9.5

10.5 - 11.5

12.0

TDS

350

400 - 500

3500

3200 5000

Total hardness

< 10

5 - 40

P - Alkalinity

50

40

350

1100 1500

M - Alkalinity

100

250 - 300

1200

1600 1800

pH