Atomic Structure

First,
lets talk
about
how
atoms
came to
exist
When did chemical processes start to occur?

More About the Formation of Atoms

Quarks inside a proton

As photons started to cool, they

began to form subatomic
particles

Subatomic = smaller than the atom

(sub = under)

A quark is an example of a
subatomic particle: it is a fastmoving point of energy.
Quarks make up protons and
neutrons, which, in turn, make up
an atom's nucleus.
Note: In addition to electrons and
quarks, physicists have identified a
number of other subatomic
particles. Quantum physics
describes the subatomic world as
one that cannot be depicted in
diagrams. Particles are not dots in
space (as depicted in this
presentation), but are more like

Each proton and each neutron

contains three quarks.
Protons contain two 'up' quarks
and one 'down' quark while
neutrons contain one 'up' quark
and two 'down' quarks.
Particles called gluons are
responsible for binding the 4
quarks to one another.

Investigating Atoms and Atomic Theory

Atomos: Not to
Be Cut
The History of Atomic
Theory

Atomic Models
This model of the atom may
look familiar to you. This is
the Bohr model. In this
model, the nucleus is
orbited by electrons, which
are
in different energy
levels.
A model uses familiar
ideas to explain
unfamiliar facts
observed in nature.
A model can be changed
as new information is
collected.
6

 The atomic
model has
changed
throughout the
centuries,
starting in 400
BC, when it
looked like a

billiard ball

Who are these men?

In this lesson, well learn about
the men whose quests for
knowledge about the
fundamental nature of the
universe helped define our
views.

Democritus
This is the Greek
philosopher Democritus
who began the search for
a description of matter
more than 2400 years ago.
He asked: Could
matter be divided
into smaller and
smaller pieces
forever, or was there
a limit to the number
of times a piece of
matter could be
divided?

400 BC

Atomos
His theory: Matter
could not be divided
into smaller and
smaller pieces forever,
eventually the
smallest possible
piece would be
obtained.
This piece would be
indivisible.
He named the
10
smallest piece of

Atomos
To Democritus,
atoms were small,
hard particles that
were all made of the
same material but
were different
shapes and sizes.
Atoms were infinite
in number, always
moving and capable
of joining together.
11

This theory was

ignored and forgotten
for more than 2000
years!

12

Why?
The eminent
philosophers
of the time,
Aristotle and
Plato, had a
more
respected,
(and ultimately
wrong) theory.

Aristotle and Plato favored the earth,

fire, air and water approach to the
nature of matter. Their ideas held sway
because of their eminence as
philosophers. The atomos idea was
buried for approximately 2000 years.
13

14

Daltons Model

John Dalton, a British school teacher, published his

theory about atoms in the year 1808. His findings
were based on experiments and also from laws of

Daltons Theory
He deduced that all elements
are composed of atoms.
Atoms are indivisible and
indestructible particles.
Atoms of the same element
are exactly alike.
Atoms of different elements
are different.
Compounds are formed by
the joining of atoms of two or
more elements.
16

 This theory
became one
of the
foundations
of modern
chemistry.
17

Thomsons Plum Pudding Model

In 1897, the
English
scientist J.J.
Thomson
provided the
first hint that
an atom is
made of even
smaller

18

Thomson Model
He proposed a
model of the
atom that is
sometimes
called the Plum
Pudding model.
Atoms were
made from a
positively
charged
substance with
negatively
charged

19

Thomson Model

Thomson studied the passage of an electric current

through a gas.
As the current passed through the gas, it gave off rays
20
of negatively charged particles.

Thomson Model
This surprised
Thomson,
because the
atoms of the
gas were
uncharged.
Where had the
negative
charges come

Where
did they
come
from?

21

Thomson concluded that the

negative charges came from
within the atom.
A particle smaller than an
atom had to exist.
The atom was divisible!
Thomson called the negatively
charged corpuscles, today
known as electrons.
Since the gas was known to be
neutral, having no charge, he
reasoned that there must be
positively charged particles in
the atom.
But he could never find them.

22

Rutherfords Gold Foil

Experiment

In 1908, the
English physicist
Ernest
Rutherford was
hard at work on
an experiment
that seemed to
have little to do
with unraveling
the mysteries of

23

 Rutherfords experiment Involved

firing a stream of tiny positively
charged particles at a thin sheet
of gold foil (2000 atoms thick)

24

Rutherfords experiment

Most of the positively charged

bullets passed right through the
gold atoms in the sheet of gold
foil without changing course at all.
Some of the positively charged
bullets, however, did bounce
away from the gold sheet as if
they had hit something solid. He
knew that positive charges repel
positive charges.

25

Rutherford
Rutherford reasoned that all of
an atoms positively charged
particles were contained in the
nucleus. The negatively charged
particles were scattered outside
the nucleus around the atoms
edge.

A nuclear atom viewed in cross section

26

Maxwell (1873), proposed that visible light consists of

electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic
radiation is the
emission and
transmission of energy
in the form of
electromagnetic waves.

Speed of light (c) in vacuum = 3.00 x 108 m/s

All electromagnetic radiation
x c
27

28

Mystery #1, Black Body Problem:

Frequency dependence of radiation from a heated body
Classical Physics couldnt explain it : UV Catastrophe.
Solved by Planck with a Quantum Theory (1900)

Energy (light) is emitted or absorbed

in discrete units or a packet
(quantum).
Energy of an atom is quantized.
E = nh
h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js
Plancks constant

n: 1,2,3,4,5 etc.
29

Whats nature of light?

According to classical physics, it is a wave
because of the following properties.

Reflection
Refraction
Diffraction: a result of interference
However, the wave nature of
light couldnt explain the
photoelectric effect.
30

Mystery #2, Photoelectric Effect

Solved by Einstein in 1905

Electrical Current generated by light:

Presence of the Threshold frequency
Absence of Time Lag

KE e-

Light has both:

1. wave nature
2. particle natureE = h
Photon is a particle of light

h = KE +
KE = BE
h - BE
Alkali metals works the best.

31

Sources for light emission

Light emitted by an electric discharge through (a) hydrogen gas and (b) helium
gas. Light emitted when compounds of the alkali metals are excited in gas
flames (c) lithium, (d) sodium and (e) potassium

32

Mystery #3: Line Emission Spectrum of H Atoms

HOW are they generated?

(396)

410

434
496
.
Johann Balmer (1825-1989) solved the jigsaw puzzle

656
33

Question

34

The photoelectric effect..

35

Question

36

Intensity vs Energy of photon

37

Questions

38

Photon momentum.

39

The Dual Nature of Matter:

Wave-Particle Duality: Wavicle

Einstein:
(1905)

Light wave is Light Particle

(Photon)
E = h = hc/

De Broglie: Electron (Particle) is

Wave
(1923)
= h/mu
40

Wave property of matter

161.3 kmph

155 kmph

41

They were both right

G. P. Thompson
J. J. Thompson
Noble Prize 1937
Noble Prize 1906
42 wav
Showed that electron is a
Showed that electron is a particle

The Schrodinger equation - electrons

by their wave like properties
Schrodinger applied idea of ebehaving as a wave to the
problem of electrons in atoms.
Solution to WAVE EQUATION
gives set of mathematical
expressions called

WAVE FUNCTIONS,

E. Schrodinger
Each describes an allowed energy
1887-1961

state of an eQuantization introduced naturally.

The Schrodinger equation - electrons

by their wave like properties

44

Uncertainty Principle

W. Heisenberg
1901-1976

Problem of defining nature of

electrons in atoms solved by
W. Heisenberg.
Cannot simultaneously define
the position and momentum
(= mv) of an electron.
x. p = h
At best we can describe the
position and velocity of an
electron by a
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION,
which is given by

Bohr Model
In 1913, the
Danish scientist
Niels Bohr
proposed an
improvement. In
his model, he
placed each
electron in a
specific energy
level.

46

Bohr Model
According to
Bohrs atomic
model, electrons
move in definite
orbits around the
nucleus, much
like planets
circle the sun.
These orbits, or
energy levels,
are located at
certain distances

47

1.
2.

Bohrs Model
of
the
Atom
e can only have specific
(quantized) energy values
(1913)
-

light is emitted as e- moves

from one energy level to a
lower energy level

En = -RH(

1
n2

n (principal quantum number) = 1,2,3,

RH (Rydberg constant) = 2.18 x
10-18J

48

E = h

E = h

49

ni = 3

ni = 3

ni = 2
nf = 2

Ephoton = E = Ef - Ei
1
Ef = -RH( 2
nf
1
Ei = -RH( 2
ni
1
E = R(H 2
ni

)
)
1
n2f

nnf f==11

50

LIGHT EMISSION OF SODIUM ATOM

Line spectrum

Refinement of Bohr Model

Atomic spectra display fine structure due to splitting of spectral
lines.
attempt to account for the fine structure, Arnold Sommerfeld
proposed elliptical orbits instead of circular orbits proposed by
Bohr.

k=4 k=3

k=2
k=1

From Bohr model to Quantum mechanics

Bohrs theory was a great accomplishment
and radically changed our view of matter.
But problems existed with Bohr theory
theory only successful for the H atom.
introduced quantum idea artificially.

So, we go on to QUANTUM or WAVE

MECHANICS

Wave Model

54

The Wave Model

Todays atomic model is based on the

principles of wave mechanics.
According to the theory of wave mechanics,
electrons do not move about an atom in a
definite path, like the planets around the sun.

55

The Wave Model

In fact, it is impossible to determine the exact
location of an electron. The probable location
of an electron is based on how much energy
the electron has.
According to the modern atomic model, at
atom has a small positively charged nucleus
surrounded by a large region in which there
are enough electrons to make an atom neutral.

56

Electron Cloud:
A space in which
electrons are likely to
be found.
Electrons whirl about
the nucleus billions of
times in one second
They are not moving
around in random
patterns.
Location of electrons
depends upon how
much energy the
electron has.
57

The Dual Nature of Matter:

Wave-Particle Duality: Wavicle

Einstein:
(1905)

Light wave is Light Particle

(Photon)
E = h = hc/

De Broglie: Electron (Particle) is

Wave
(1923)
= h/mu
58

Why is e- energy quantized?

De Broglie (1924)
reasoned that e- is both
particle and wave.
2r = n

= h/mu

u = velocity of em = mass of e59

Quantum or Wave Mechanics

Schrodinger applied idea of ebehaving as a wave to the
problem of electrons in atoms.

E. Schrodinger
1887-1961

Solution to WAVE EQUATION

gives set of mathematical
expressions called

WAVE FUNCTIONS,
Each describes an allowed energy
state of an eQuantization introduced naturally.

Uncertainty Principle

W. Heisenberg
1901-1976

Problem of defining nature of

electrons in atoms solved by
W. Heisenberg.
Cannot simultaneously define
the position and momentum
(= mv) of an electron.
x. p = h
At best we can describe the
position and velocity of an
electron by a
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION,
which is given by

62

Chemists notations.

63

Schrodinger Wave Equation

fn(n, l, ml, ms)

principal quantum number n

n = 1, 2, 3, 4, .
distance of e- from the nucleus

n=1 n=2

n=3

64

Schrodinger Wave Equation

= fn(n, l, ml, ms)
angular momentum quantum number l
for a given value of n, l = 0, 1, 2, 3, n-1

n = 1, l = 0
n = 2, l = 0 or 1
n = 3, l = 0, 1, or 2

l=0
l=1
l=2
l=3

s orbital
p orbital
d orbital
f orbital

hape of the volume of space that the e- occupies

65

66

Question

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

Where 90% of the

e- density is found
for the 1s orbital

e- density (1s orbital) falls off rapidly

as distance from nucleus increases

75

76

77

78

79

l = 0 (s orbitals)

l = 1 (p orbitals)

80

81

82

l = 2 (d orbitals)

83

Schrodinger Wave Equation

= fn(n, l, ml, ms)
magnetic quantum number ml
for a given value of l
ml = -l, ., 0, . +l
if l = 1 (p orbital), ml = -1, 0, or 1
if l = 2 (d orbital), ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2
orientation of the orbital in space
84

ml = -1

ml = -2

ml = 0

ml = -1

ml = 0

ml = 1

ml = 1

ml = 2
85

Schrodinger Wave Equation

= fn(n, l, ml, ms)
spin quantum number ms
ms = + or -

ms = + ms = -

86

Schrodinger Wave Equation

= fn(n, l, ml, ms)

xistence (and energy) of electron in atom is describe

y its unique wave function .

uli exclusion principle - no two electrons in an ato

n have the same four quantum numbers.

Each seat is uniquely identified (E, R12, S8)

Each seat can hold only one individual at a time

87

88

Fill up electrons in lowest energy orbitals (Aufbau principle)

? ?
Li
Be
B
C5
6
34electrons
electrons
2 222 12 1
BBe
Li1s1s
1s
2s2s
2s
2p

H
He1 2electron
electrons
He
H 1s
1s12
89

The most stable arrangement of

electrons in subshells is the one with
the greatest number of parallel spins
(Hunds rule).

N
F
O
C
Ne
96
7
8 10
electrons
electrons
electrons
2 222 5
Ne
N
C
O
F 1s
1s
1s222s
2s
2s2p
2p
2p2346

90

Order of orbitals (filling) in multi-electron atom

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s
91

Electron configuration is how the electrons

are distributed among the various atomic
orbitals in an atom.
number of electrons
in the orbital or subshell

1s1
principal quantum
number n

angular momentum
quantum number l

Orbital diagram
H
1s1
92

Outermost subshell being filled with electrons

93

Paramagnetic

Diamagnetic

unpaired electrons

all electrons paired

2p

O, S

2p

Ne, Ar
94

ATOMIC ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS AND

PERIODICITY

Multi-electron atom

96

97

98

99

100

101

Shielding in He atom-two cases

Case A

Case B
102

103

104

105

106

Chemistry in Action: Element from

the Sun
In 1868, Pierre Janssen detected a new dark line in the solar emission
spectrum that did not match known emission lines
Mystery element was named Helium
In 1895, William Ramsey discovered helium in a mineral of uranium
(from alpha decay).

H:

656

486

434

410

He: 668

588

502

447
107