General Chemistry:

An Integrated Approach
Hill, Petrucci, 4th Edition

Chapter 19
Nuclear Chemistry
Mark P. Heitz
State University of New York at Brockport
2005, Prentice Hall, Inc.

Introduction
Nuclear properties can be used to distinguish
among the various isotopes of an element
Examples: carbon-13, carbon-14

13
14
6 C, 6 C

Radioactivity, or radioactive decay, is the

spontaneous change of the nuclei accompanied by
the emission of subatomic particles and/or highfrequency electromagnetic radiation
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Radioactivity and
Nuclear Equations
A nucleus with a specified number of protons
and neutrons is a nuclide
Together, protons and neutrons are called nucleons
Mass number
Atomic number

13
6C

The two sides of a nuclear equation must have

the same totals of atomic numbers and mass
numbers
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Radioactive Decay Products

Effect of an electric field on particle emission:

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Modes of Radioactive Decay

238
92 U

234
4
90Th 2 He

Sum of mass numbers: 238 = 234 + 4

Sum of atomic numbers: 92 = 90 + 2
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Types of Radioactive Decay

234
234
0
90Th 91 Pa 1e
234 m
234
0
90Th 90Th 0
23
26
0
13 Al 12 Mg 1e
125
0
125
53 I 1e 52Te

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Beta Decay
Gamma Decay
Positron Decay
Electron Capture
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Radioactive Elements
Most of the naturally occurring nuclides of the
lighter elements have stable nuclei; they are not
radioactive
Even though they are radioactive, many
nuclides of high atomic number are found in
natural sources
The half-life (t1/2) of a radioactive nuclide is
the time required for one-half the nuclei in a
sample of the nuclide to decay
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Radioactive Decay Series

A series of radioactive
decays beginning with
a long-lived
radioactive nuclide
and ending with a
nonradioactive one is
called a radioactive
decay series

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Radioactive Decay Rates

The radioactive decay law states that the rate of
disintegration of a radioactive nuclide, called the
decay rate or activity, A, is directly proportional
to the number of atoms present
Rate of Radioactive Decay = A = N
Radioactive decay is a first-order process. The
decay constant, , is analogous to k in the rate
of reaction
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Example of First Order Decay

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Selected Nuclide Half-lives

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Radiocarbon Dating
Carbon-14 is formed at a nearly constant rate in
the upper atmosphere by the bombardment of
nitrogen-14 with neutrons from cosmic radiation
Carbon-14 in living matter decays by emissions
at a rate of about 15 disintegrations per minute per
gram of carbon
The half-life for carbon-14 is 5730 years. This
dating method works well if an object is between
5000 and 50,000 years old
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Synthetic Nuclides
Rutherford, in 1919, was able to convert nitrogen14 into oxygen-17 plus some extra protons by
bombarding the nitrogen atoms with particles.
This a naturally occurring form of oxygen and is
not radioactive
Phosphorus-30 was the first synthetic radioactive
nuclide

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Transuranium Elements
In 1940, the first of the transuranium elements
elements with a Z > 92was synthesized by
bombarding uranium-238 nuclei with neutrons
238
92 U

0
238
1n 93 U
239
0
239
92 U 1e 93 Np
239
0
239
93 Np 1e 94 Pu

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Transuranium Elements
Considerable energy must be imparted to a positive ion
in order for it to overcome repulsion by a positively
charged nucleus. A machine, called a charged-particle
accelerator, or cyclotron, is capable of this process

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Nuclear Stability

Stable, nonradioactive
nuclei are found within
the belt of stability

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Energetics of Nuclear Reactions

While working out the details of the theory of
special relativity, Einstein derived the equation
for the equivalence of mass and energy: E = mc2
Nuclear energies are normally expressed in the
unit MeV (megaelectronvolt): 1 u = 931.5 MeV

m = 0.0061 u

or 5.7 MeV
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Nuclear Binding Energy

The energy released in forming a nucleus from
its protons and neutrons is called the nuclear
binding energy and is expressed as a positive
quantity
This explains why there is a mass loss of 0.0304
u in the formation of a helium nucleus from the
two protons and two neutrons which comprise it.
This quantity is called the mass defect of the
nucleus
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Nuclear Binding Energy

for Helium

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Average Binding Energies

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Nuclear Fission
The breakup of a heavy nucleus into two lighter
fragments is called nuclear fission

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Nuclear Fission Reactions

When a nucleus undergoes fission, some mass is
converted into energy; about 3.2 1011 J or
approximately 8 107 kJ/g
A nuclear reactor is designed to tame the nuclear
fission process so that energy is released in a
controlled manner

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A Model Reactor

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Nuclear Fusion
The process of combining light nuclei into a
heavier one is called nuclear fusion
Fusion is much more difficult to accomplish than
fission because, with fusion, the nuclei must be
forced extremely close together
accomplished in the uncontrolled fusion
reactions of hydrogen bombs

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A Fusion Reactor
This close approach requires that the nuclei have
enormously high thermal energies (over 40,000,000 K)

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Effect of Radiation on Matter

particles only dislodge electrons from
atoms and are termed ionizing radiation
Electrons freed by ionizing radiation are called
primary electrons
Some primary electrons are energetic enough to
ionize other atoms and molecules, producing
secondary electrons

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Effects of Ionizing Radiation

Ionizing radiation can excite electrons to higher
energy levels with the emission of electromagnetic
radiation such as X rays and ultraviolet light

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Radiation Detectors
One of the simplest and oldest ways to detect
ionizing radiation is to observe the clouding it
produces on photographic film
The most
familiar
radiation
detection
device is the
GeigerMller
counter
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Radiation Units

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Radiation Dosage
1000 rem: Almost certain to cause death
450 rem: A short-term dose would kill 50% of a
population within 30 days
1 rem: A short-term dose would likely cause
about 100 cases of cancer within 20 to 30 years
for every 1 million people exposed
130 mrem/y: The normal average background
radiation dosage
20 mrem: The typical dose in a chest X ray
examination
5 mrem/y: Result of nuclear power production
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Approximate Stopping Distances

Materials vary in ability to block radiation

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Medical Diagnosis and Therapy

Radioisotopes are widely used to diagnose
various disorders: most have very short halflives
Although ionizing radiation can induce cancer, it
can also be used to treat cancer cells, which are
destroyed more easily by radiation than are
healthy, normal cells
In some instances, radioactive chemicals (called
radiopharmaceuticals) can be ingested and allowed
to find their own way to the targeted tissue
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Radioactive Tracers
Radioactive nuclides can be used as radioactive
tracers, and their atoms can be attached to other
substances, which are then said to be tagged
These tracers can be used to:
Detect leaks in underground piping systems
Determine frictional wear in piston rings
Determine the uptake of phosphorus and its
distribution in plants
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Summary of Concepts
The five types of radioactive nuclides involve
emission of alpha () particles, beta () particles,
gamma () rays, positrons, and electron capture
All known nuclides with Z > 83 are radioactive,
and many of them occur naturally as members of
four radioactive decay series
In the formation of an atomic nucleus from its
protons and neutrons, a quantity of mass is
converted into energy
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Summary of Concepts
Radiation from radioactive materials interacts with
matter, principally by forming ions and breaking
chemical bonds

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