Geometrical optics (ray optics) is the

simplest version of optics.

Quantum optics
Electromagnetic optics
Wave optics

Ray
optics

GEOMETRICAL OPTICS

IMAGE FORMATION
WITH LENSES

Assumption
If the objects encountered by light are large compared to
wavelength, the equations of propagation can be greatly
simplified
i.e. the wavephenomena (scattering, interference, etc)
are neglected
In homogeneous media, light travels in straight lines =
rays
Isotropic: same optical properties across the media means
constant index of refraction.
Principle of reversibility: if object and image points
switch places light rays will go through the same path
only in opposite direction.

Light at a Curved Interface

conjugate points
object
space

imaging system

image
space

Image forms if rays from O to I are isochronous (arrive at same time)

Shapes that do this are called Cartesian Surfaces

What surface, made up of points P(x,y), creates and image of O at I?

no

ni
P(x,y)

I
so

si

We know:
1. Each ray will go in least time (Fermat).
2. All rays will take the same time (Isochronous).

nx
t
c
3. Equal time implies equal nx (optical path length)
(phase, or # of cycles)

n0 s0 ni si n0 x y
2

Cartesian Ovoid

1
2

ni y ( s0 si x )
2

1
2

Perfect imager
Cartesian Ovoid
no

ni
P(x,y)

x
O

so

I
si

Want the object and image in the same index (air): refract twice!

Lens: Hyperbolic surfaces

Only good on axis!

Lens Aberrations

Spherical & chromatic

Astigmatism

Coma

If its going to have aberrations anyway, might as well use a sphere!

n1

h
0

so

i 0
i r 0 i
n
i n i 0 i
1

n2

si

 0 1 nn 0 i
1

Paraxial Optics (Gaussian Optics): all rays are close to the optical axis
and make small angles with it (good to 10 degrees).

sin

tan

cos 1

h
h
n1
h
h

n2
so si
so R
n1 n2
n2 n1

so
si
R

Refraction at a
spherical interface

n1 n2
n2 n1

so
si
R

Thin Lens: two spherical refracting surfaces.

n1

n1

n2

si
so

si
R1

n1 n2
n2 n1

so si '
R1

so

R2

n2 n1 n1 n2

so ' si
R2
so ' t si '
so ' si ' (thin lens!)

Sum:

n1 n1 n2 n1 n1 n2

so si
R1
R2
1
1

n2 n1 1
1

so si
n1
R1 R2

Special Case: image distance for a parallel beam

1
1

n2 n1 1
1

si
n1
R1 R2
1

n2 n1 1
1

f
n1
R1 R2

lensmakers equation
f = focal length

1
1
1

so si
f
thin lens equation

Thin Lenses
paraxial rays, in air

1 1

s o si

(nlens

1
1
1)

R1 R2

Thin Lens
Equation

if the lens is thin, then

1
1

s o si

1
f

Gaussian Lens
Formula

Conventions: Light Incident on

Left
Before we can calculate the good stuff, we will need to adopt some
conventions concerning our new found friends.

Conventions needed for:

(1) object distance (so)
(2) image distance (si)
(3) radius of curvature (R)
(4) focal point ( f )

(1) Object Conventions

principal rays
object is REAL
when rays diverge from object:

so > 0

so

object is VIRTUAL when rays

converge to object:

so < 0
so

usually only with lens

combinations

(2) Image Conventions

image is REAL
when rays converge :

si

si > 0

rays focus on the image

image is VIRTUAL when rays

diverge :

si < 0
si

rays project back to the image

(3) R Conventions
R1

R1 > 0
R2 < 0
R2
R > 0 when line lands on right
R < 0 when line lands on left

R1
R1 < 0
R2

R2 > 0

(4) f Conventions
lens is CONVERGING
when rays converge:

f > 0

lens is DIVERGING
when rays diverge:

f < 0

check rays from

Newtonian equation for the thin lens

The object and image distances are measured from the focal points
like the picture. The equation is simpler and is used in certain
applications

Magnification
Lateral or Transverse Magnification

si
xi
f
MT
s0
f
x0
Longitudinal Magnification
2

dxi
f
2
ML
2 MT
dx0
x0

Vergence and Refractive Power

Vergence or reciprocal of the image/object distance describes the
curvature of the wavefront
Vergence is measured in unitst of 1/m or
Diopter.

Refractive power of an optical system is

So the lens equation becomes simpler:

Common Lens Types

planar convex

bi-convex

focus or
magnify light

f>0

produce real or
virtual images

planar concave

f<0

symmetric lenses
cancel some
aberrations

f >0

bi-concave

light expanders

increase f of systems

produce real or
virtual images

symmetric lenses
cancel some
aberrations

f<0

Lenses Mommy Never Mentioned

meniscus

cylindrical

used to change f or
light collection in
system
f > 0 or f < 0

aplanatic: wont
introduce spherical
abbs

graded index
(GRIN)

easy to correct
aberrations
used in laser
diode coupling

f>0

f > 0 or f < 0

used when
magnification
needed
in only one
dimension (slits,
etc)

ball

collimate high-angle
outputs (diode
lasers, fibers)
easy alignment, high
coupling
f >0
efficiencies

Example
Locate the image of an object placed
1.2 m from the vertex of a gypsys
crystal ball, which has a 20-cm
diameter (n=1.5). Make a sketch of the
thing (not the gypsy, the rays)

Thin-Lens Combinations

axis

 f.f.l (front focal length) = the distance from

the vertex of the first surface to the first or
object focus
b.f.l (back focal length) = the distance from
the last surface of an optical system to the
last focal point of that system
Effective focal length (d 0)

Coupling: Lamp to Fiber

Goal:
couple as much light as possible from this
lamp into the fiber
Solution:

f = 10 mm, D = 5 mm planar convex lens (cheap)

We Forgot Collection Efficiency

So, now we couple this system, and find out that we have
too little light striking the tissue what went wrong?

so

tan

D / 2 5 / 2 mm

so
100 mm

power is > 1/360 !

~ 1o
notice that a collimated beam (I.e. laser) would couple nicely

D/2

The size of a lens determines its light

gathering power and, consequently, the
brightness of the image it forms.
Two commonly used indicators of this special
characteristic of a lens are called the fnumber and the numerical aperture.

The Camera
Aperture size
determined by
number expressing it
as a ratio of focal
length to opening
called f-number

D
f

f number 2

f
f number
D

f = 10 mm

D = 10 mm

D = 5 mm

Which lens collects more light?

f = 10 mm

The F/#
f
f /#
D
referred to as the f-number or speed
measure of the collection efficiency of a system
smaller f/# implies higher collected flux:
f or D decreases the flux area
f or D increases the flux area

The Numerical Aperture (NA)

CASE 1

f
CASE 2

f
CASE 3

2
/2

Numerical Aperture
NA n sin
describes light gathering capability for:
lenses
microscope objectives (where n may not be 1)
optical fibers

NA photons gathered

Light-gathering power of oil-immersion and air-immersion lens,

showing that oil is greater than air

In summary, one can increase the light-gathering

power of a lens and the brightness of the image
formed by a lens by decreasing the f-number of the
lens (increasing lens diameter) or by increasing the
numerical aperture of the lens (increasing the
refraction index and thus making possible a larger
acceptance angle).

IMAGE FORMATION
WITH MIRRORS

Plane Mirror

Object

Rays emanating from an object at point

P strike the mirror and are reflected
with equal angles of incidence and
reflection. After reflection, the rays
continue to spread. If we extend the
rays backward behind the mirror, they
will intersect at point P, which is the
image of point P. To an observer, the
rays appear to come from point P, but
no source is there and no rays actually
converging there . For that reason, this
image at P is a virtual image.

The image, I, formed by a plane

mirror of an object, O, appears to
be a distance di , behind the
mirror, equal to the object
distance do.

P
Virtual
Image

do
O

di
I

Continued

Plane Mirror

(cont.)

Two rays from object P strike the mirror at points B and M. Each
ray is reflected such that i = r.
Triangles BPM and BPM are
P
do B
di
P
congruent by ASA (show this),
which implies that do= di and
h = h. Thus, the image is the
h
M
h
same distance behind the
mirror as the object is in
Image
Object
front of it, and the image is
the same size as the object.

object

image

Mirror

With plane mirrors, the image is reversed left to right (or the front
and back of an image ). When you raise your left hand in front of a
mirror, your image raises its right hand. Why arent top and bottom
reversed?

Image formation in a plane mirror

Concave and Convex Mirrors

Concave and convex mirrors are curved mirrors similar to
portions of a sphere.

light
rays

Concave mirrors reflect

light from their inner
surface, like the inside of
a spoon.

light rays

Convex mirrors reflect

light from their outer
surface, like the outside
of a spoon.

Concave Mirrors
Concave mirrors are approximately spherical and have a

principal axis that goes through the center, C, of the imagined

sphere and ends at the point at the center of the mirror, A.
The principal axis is perpendicular to the surface of the mirror
at A.
CA is the radius of the sphere,or the
radius of curvature of the mirror, R .
Halfway between C and A is the focal
point of the mirror, F. This is the point
where rays parallel to the principal axis
will converge when reflected off the
mirror.
The length of FA is the focal length, f.
The focal length is half of the radius
of the sphere (proven on next slide).

r = 2 f (Paraxial Aproximation)

t
en
ng
ta e
lin

To prove that the radius of curvature of a concave mirror is

twice its focal length, first construct a tangent line at the
point of incidence. The normal is perpendicular to the
tangent and goes through the center, C. Here, i = r = . By
alt. int. angles the angle at C is also , and = 2 . s is the
arc length from the principle axis to the pt. of incidence.
Now imagine a sphere centered
at F with radius f. If the incident
ray is close to the principle axis,

the arc length of the new sphere

s
is about the same as s. From

s = r , we have s = r and
C
F f
s f = 2 f . Thus, r 2 f ,
and r = 2 f.

Focusing Light with Concave Mirrors

Light rays parallel to the principal axis will be
reflected through the focus (disregarding
spherical aberration, explained on next slide.)

In reverse, light rays passing

through the focus will be reflected
parallel to the principal axis, as in a
flood light.
Concave mirrors can form both real and virtual images,
depending on where the object is located, as will be shown in
upcoming slides.

Spherical Aberration

Spherical Mirror

Parabolic
Mirror

Only parallel rays close to the principal axis of a spherical mirror will
converge at the focal point. Rays farther away will converge at a point
closer to the mirror. The image formed by a large spherical mirror
will be a disk, not a point. This is known as spherical aberration.
Parabolic mirrors dont have spherical aberration. They are used to
focus rays from stars in a telescope. They can also be used in
flashlights and headlights since a light source placed at their focal
point will reflect light in parallel beams. However, perfectly parabolic
mirrors are hard to make and slight errors could lead to spherical
aberration.
Continued

Spherical vs. Parabolic Mirrors

Parallel rays converge at
the focal point of a
spherical mirror only if
they are close to the
principal axis. The image
formed in a large spherical
mirror is a disk, not a point
(spherical aberration).

Parabolic mirrors have no

spherical aberration. The
mirror focuses all parallel
rays at the focal point.
That is why they are used
in telescopes and light
beams like flashlights and
car headlights.

SPHERICAL
vs.
PARABOLIC

Concave Mirrors: Object beyond C

object

F
image

The image formed when an

object is placed beyond C is
located between C and F. It
is a real, inverted image that
is smaller in size than the
object.

Concave Mirrors: Object between C and F

object

C
image

The image formed when an

object is placed between C
and F is located beyond C. It
is a real, inverted image that
is larger in size than the
object.

Concave Mirrors: Object in front of F

objec
t

image

The image formed when an

object is placed in front of F
is located behind the mirror.
It is a virtual, upright image
that is larger in size than
the object. It is virtual
since it is formed only where
light rays seem to be
diverging from.

Concave Mirrors: Object at C or F

What happens when an object is placed at C?
The image will be formed at C also,
but it will be inverted. It will be real
and the same size as the object.
What happens when an object is placed at F?
No image will be formed. All rays will
reflect parallel to the principal axis
and will never converge. The image is
at infinity.

Convex Mirrors
A convex mirror has
the same basic
properties as a concave
mirror but its focus and
center are located
behind the mirror.
This means a convex
mirror has a negative
focal length (used later
in the mirror equation).
Light rays reflected
from convex mirrors
always diverge, so only
virtual images will be
formed.

light rays

Rays parallel to the

principal axis will reflect
as if coming from the
focus behind the mirror.
Rays approaching the
mirror on a path toward F
will reflect parallel to the
principal axis.

Convex Mirror Diagram

object

image

The image formed by a

convex mirror no matter
where the object is placed
will be virtual, upright, and
smaller than the object. As
the object is moved closer
to the mirror, the image
will approach the size of
the object.

Mirror Equation Derivation

From PCO, = + , so 2 = 2 + 2.
From PTO, = 2 + , so - = -2 - .
Adding equations yields 2 - = .

P
s

object From s = r , we have

C
T

image

s = r , s d0 , and
s di (for rays
close to the principle
axis).s Thus:

=
di

do

r
s

di

do

(cont.)

Mirror/Lens Equation Derivation

P
s

(cont.)

From the last slide, = s / r, s / d0 , s / di , and

2 - = . Substituting into the last equation
yields
s
2s
s
object

-d

T
C

image

= d
r
i
o
2
1
1
= d +d
r
i
o

1
1
2
2f = di + do

di
do

1
f

1
1
= d +d
i
o

The last equation applies to convex and concave mirrors, as

well as to lenses, provided a sign convention is adhered to.

Mirror Sign Convention

1
1
1
+
=
f
di do

f = focal length
di = image distance
do = object
distance

di

+ for real image

- for virtual image

+ for concave mirrors

- for convex mirrors

Magnification
By definition,

hi
m=
ho

m = magnification
hi = image height (negative means inverted)
ho = object height
Magnification is simply the ratio of image height to object
height. A positive magnification means an upright image.

Magnification
Identity:

hi -di
m=
=
ho do

To derive this lets look at two rays. One hits the mirror on the axis.
The incident and reflected rays each make angle relative to the
axis. A second ray is drawn through the center and is reflected back
on top of itself (since a radius is always perpendicular to an tangent
line of a circle).
The intersection of the
object reflected rays
determines the location of

ho
the tip of the image. Our
result follows
C
from similar triangles, with
image,
the negative sign a
height = hi
consequence of our sign
convention. (In this picture
hi is negative and di is
di
do
positive.)

Example
Looking into the bowl of a soupspoon, a man standing
25 cm away sees his image reflected with a
magnification of -0.064. Determine the radius of
curvature of the spoon.

Complex System (Lenses-Mirrors)

OPTICAL DEVICES

Optical defects and

correction
Myopia (nearsightedness)
Hypermetropia (farsightedness)
Astigmatism
Presbyopia

Optical defects and

Myopia (nearsightedness)
correction
The distance between the
cornea and the retina may
be too long or the power
of the cornea and the lens
may be too strong.
Light rays focus in front of
the retina instead of on
it.
Close objects will look clear,
but distant objects will
appear blurred.

Short sight can be corrected by wearing spectacles with

concave lenses (diverging lenses)

Optical defects and

correction
Hypermetropia (farsightedness)
In hypermetropia
(farsightedness), there is too
little optical power.
The distance between the cornea
and the retina may be too
short.
Light rays are focused behind the
retina instead of on it.
In adults (but not children),
distant objects will look clear,
but close objects will appear
blurred.

Long sight can be corrected by wearing spectacles with

convex lenses (converging lenses)

Optical defects and

correction Astigmatism
In astigmatism, the cornea is curved
unevenlyshaped more like a
football than a basketball.
Light passing through the uneven
cornea is focused in two or more
locations.
Distant and close objects may appear
blurry.

Optical defects and

correction Presbyopia
Presbyopia = short arm syndrome
Caused by ageing, people find it difficult to
read small words at close distance
People also find it difficult to perform near
work, such as embroidery or handwriting.
Correction most common by bifocal lenses

7.4 Thick lens*

Thick lenses are similar to the thin
lenses and they also contain two
systems of coaxial spherical surfaces.
The difference between them is that
thickness of the thick lenses cannot be
negligible while the thickness of thin
lenses can be ignored. As before, such
a system can be solved by spherical
surface, but it contain a lot of trivial
details especially for coaxial optical

Cardinal points ( ): 1. Two focal

points (F1, F2), 2. Two principal points
( H1, H2, first principal plane B1H1A1
and second principal plane B2H2A2), 3.

Cardinal points ( , ):
1.Two focal points (F1, F2) they have
the same definition as above.
2.Two principal points ( H1, H2, first
principal plane B1H1A1 and second
principal plane B2H2A2): the extension of
incident ray and backward extension of
refracted ray (note that the refracted
line is parallel to the light axis) meet
at point A1. First principal plane
3.Two nodes (N1, N2), through these

Positions of the three pairs of cardinal points

are based on the specific conditions of the
refractive system. When the refractive system
is put in one medium, in the air for example,
the two focal lengths can be proved to be equal
to each other. f1 = f2 = f, N1 and H1 are at
the same position, N2 and H2 are at the same
position. The same equation for the thin lens
can be obtained. 1 1 1

Note that the object distance is from the

first principal plane and the image distance is
from the second principal plane, not from the
surface of lens.

Complex optical systems

Thick lenses, combinations of lenses etc..
Consider case where t is not
negligible.
We would like to maintain
our Gaussian imaging relation

n n'
P
s s'
But where do we measure s, s ; f,
f from? How do we determine P?
We try to develop a formalism that
can be used with any system!!

n
t

nL

Cardinal points and planes:

1. Focal (F) points & Principal planes (PP) and points
n

nL

F2

H2

PP2
Keep definition of focal point

Cardinal points and planes:

1. Focal (F) points & Principal planes (PP) and points
n

nL

F1

H1

PP1
Keep definition of focal point

Utility of principal planes

Suppose s, s, f, f all measured from H1 and H2

n
nL
n

F1

F2

H1

H2

s
PP1

PP2

Show that we recover the Gaussian Imaging relation

Cardinal points and planes:

1. Nodal (N) points and planes
n

N1

N2

nL

NP1

NP2

Cardinal planes of simple systems

1. Thin lens
V and V coincide
and
V

V
H,
H

n n'
P
s s'

is obeyed.

Principal planes, nodal planes,

coincide at center

Cardinal planes of simple systems

1. Spherical refracting surface
n

Gaussian imaging formula

obeyed, with all distances
measured from V

n n'
P
s s'

Conjugate Planes where y=y

n

nL

F1

F2

H1

H2

s
PP1

PP2

Combination of two systems: e.g. two

spherical interfaces, two thin lenses
n

H1 H1

n2

H2

H 2
1. Consider F and
F1

Find h

Y
F

F1

Combination of two systems:

h
Find h

H1

H2 H2

H 1

Y
F2

2
n

1. Consider F and F2

n2

Summary
H

H1 H1

H2 H2

Summary
f
P2 n
h
hd
H1 H d
f2
P n2
f'
P1 n'
h'
h' d
H 2 H ' d
f1 '
P n2
n' n' n2
dn'
n

f ' f 2 f1 ' f1 ' f 2 ' f

or ,
P1 P2
P P1 P2 d
n2