Lecture 09:

Theory of Automata:08

Context Free Grammars

Lecture 09:

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The Total Language Tree

It is possible to depict the generation of all the words in
the language of a CFG simultaneously in one big
(possibly infinite) tree.
Definition:
For a given CFG, we define a tree with the start symbol
S as its root and whose nodes are working strings of
terminals and nonterminals. The descendants of each
node are all the possible results of applying every
applicable production to the working string, one at a
time. A string of all terminals is a terminal node in the
tree. The resultant tree is called the total language tree
of the CFG.
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Lecture 09:

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Example
Consider the CFG:
S aa | bX |aXX
X ab |b
The total language tree is

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The above total language has only 7 different words.

Four of its words (abb, aabb, abab, aabab) have two different
derivations because they appear as terminal nodes in two different
places.

However, these words are NOT generated by two different

derivation trees. Hence, the CFG is unambiguous. For example,

Lecture 09:

Theory of Automata:08

Example
Consider the CFG:
S aSb | bS | a
The language of this CFG is infinite, so is the
total language tree: The tree may get arbitrary
wide as well as infinitely long.
Can you draw the beginning part of this total
language tree?

Lecture 09:

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Semi Word
For a given CFG, semiword is a string of
terminals (may be none) concatenated with with
exactly one non-terminal (on the right).
In general semiword has the shape
(terminal) (terminal).(terminal) (Non-Terminal)
e.g. aaaX

abcY

bbY

A word is a string of terminals only (zero or more terminals)

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Lecture 09:

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Regular Grammar
Given an FA, there is a CFG that generates exactly the
language accepted by the FA.
In other words, all regular languages are CFLs

CFL
Regular

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Creating a CFG from an FA

Step-1 The Non-terminals in CFG will be all names of the
states in the FA with the start state renamed S.

Step-2 For every edge

X

a
x

Create productions XaY or XaX

Do the same for b-edges

Step-3 For every final-state X, create the production

X
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Lecture 09:

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Example
b

a,b

a
a

S-

S aM
S bS
M aF
M bS
F aF
F bF
F

Note: It is not necessary that each CFG

has a corresponding FA. But each FA
has an equivalent CFG.

Lecture 09:

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Regular Grammar
Theorem 22:
If all the productions in a given CFG fit one of the
two forms: Non-terminal semiword
or Non-terminal word
(Where the word may be a or string of terminal),
then the language generated by the CFG is
Regular.
Proof:
For a CFG to be regular is by constructing a TG
from the given CFG.
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Proof contd.
Let us consider a general CFG in this form
N1 w1N2
N7 w10
N1 w2N3

N18 w23

N2 w3N4

---------------

----------------------------Where Ns are non-terminal and ws are the string of

terminal and part wyNz are semiwords.
Let N1=S. Draw a small circle for each N and one extra
circle labelled +, the circle for S we label (-)
N2
-S
N3

N13

Nx

+
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Proof contd.

For each production of the form Nx wyNz, draw a directed edge

from state Nx to Nz with label wy.
wy
Nx
Nz

If Nx = Nz, the path is a loop

For every production of the form Np wq, draw a directed edge
from Np to + and label it with wq even if wq = .
wq
Np
+

Any path in TG form to + corresponds to a word in the language of

TG (by concatenating symbols) and simultaneously corresponds to
sequence of productions on the CFG generating words.
Conversely every production of the word in the CFG:
S wN wwN wwwN .. wwwww
Corresponds to a path in this TG.
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Lecture 09:

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Example
Consider the CFG S aaS | bbS |
aa

bb

The regular expression is given by (aa + bb)*.

Language accepted?
Consider the CFG
SaaS | bbS | abX | baX |
EVEN-EVEN
X aaX | bbX | abS | baS
aa,bb

aa,bb

ab, ba

X
ab, ba
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Lecture 09:

Theory of Automata:08

Killing -Productions
-Productions:
In a given CFG, we call a non-terminal N null able
if there is a production N , or there is a
derivation that starts at N and lead to a .
N
-Productions are undesirable.
We can replace -production with appropriate
non- productions.

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Lecture 09:

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Theorem 23

If L is CFL generated by a CFG having -productions,

then there is a different CFG that has no -production
and still generates either the whole language L (if L
does not include ) or else generate the language of all
the words in L other than .
Replacement Rule.
1. Delete all -Productions.
2. Add the following productions:

For every production of the X old string

Add new production of the form X .., where right side will
account for every modification of the old string that can be
formed by deleting all possible subsets of null-able
Non-Terminals, except that we do not allow X , to be
formed if all the character in old string are null-able
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Lecture 09:

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Example
Consider the CFG
S a | Xb | aYa
XY|
Yb|X
Old nullable
Production
XY
X
YX
S Xb
S aYa

New
Production
nothing
nothing
nothing
Sb
S aa

So the new CFG is

S a | Xb | aa | aYa |b
XY
Yb|X

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Lecture 09:

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Example
Consider the CFG
S Xa
X aX | bX |
Old nullable
Production
S Xa

New
Production
Sa

X aX

Xa

X bX

Xb

So the new CFG is

S a | Xa
X aX | bX | a | b

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Lecture 09:

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Example

S XY
X Zb
Y bW
Z AB
WZ
A aA | bA |
B Ba | Bb |

Null-able Non-terminals are?

A, B, Z and W

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Lecture 09:

S XY
X Zb
Y bW
Z AB
WZ
A aA | bA |
B Ba | Bb |

Theory of Automata:08

Example Contd.

Old nullable
New
Production
Production
X Zb
Xb
Y bW
Yb
Z AB
Z A and Z B
W Z Nothing new
A aA A a
A bA A b
B Ba B a
B Bb B b

So the new CFG is

S XY
X Zb | b
Y bW | b
Z AB | A | B
WZ
A aA | bA | a | b
B Ba | Ba | a | b
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Lecture 09:

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Killing unit-productions
Definition: A production of the form
Nonterminal one Nonterminal
is called a unit production.
The following theorem allows us to get rid of unit
productions:
Theorem 24:
If there is a CFG for the language L that has no
-productions, then there is also a CFG for L with
no -productions and no unit productions.
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Lecture 09:

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Proof of Theorem 24
This is another proof by constructive algorithm.
Algorithm: For every pair of nonterminals A and B, if the
CFG has a unit production A B, or if there is a chain
A X1 X2 B
where X1, X2, ... are nonterminals, create new productions
as follows:
If the non-unit productions from B are
B s1 | s 2 |
where s1, s2, ... are strings, we create the productions
A s1| s2|
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Lecture 09:

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Example
Consider the CFG
S A| bb
AB|b
BS|a
The non-unit productions are
S bb, A b ,B a
And unit productions are
SA
AB
BS
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Example contd.

Lets list all unit productions and their sequences and create new
productions:
SA
gives
Sb
S A B
gives
Sa
A B
gives
A a
A B S
gives
A bb
BS
gives
B bb
BSA
gives
Bb
Eliminating all unit productions, the new CFG is
S bb | b | a
A b | a | bb
B a | bb | b
This CFG generates a finite language since there are no
nonterminals in any strings produced from S.
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Lecture 09:

Theory of Automata:08

Useless Symbols

Let a CFG G. A symbol X (V U ) is useful if there is a derivation

*

S UxV w
Where U and V (V U ) and w *. A symbol that is not useful is useless
A terminal is useful if it occurs in a string of the language of G.
A variable is useful if it occurs in a derivation that begins from S and
generates a terminal string
For a variable to be useful two conditions must be satisfied.
1.
2.

The variable must occur in a sentential form of the grammar

There must be a derivation of a terminal string from the variable.
A variable that occurs in a sentential form is said to be reachable from S.
A two part procedure is presented to eliminate useless symbols.
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Lecture 09:

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Useless Productions

S aSb
S
SA
A aA

Useless Production

Some derivations never terminate...

S A aA aaA aa aA
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Lecture 09:

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Another grammar:

SA
A aA
A
B bA

Useless Production

Not reachable from S

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Lecture 09:

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In general:
if

contains only
terminals

S xAy w

w L(G )
then variable

is useful

otherwise, variable

is useless

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Lecture 09:

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A production A x is useless
if any of its variables is useless

S aSb
S
Variables
useless
useless
useless

SA
A aA
BC
CD

Productions
useless
useless
useless
useless
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Lecture 09:

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Removing Useless Productions

Example Grammar:

S aS | A | C
Aa
B aa
C aCb
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Lecture 09:

First:

Theory of Automata:08

find all variables that can produce

strings with only terminals

S aS | A | C
Aa
B aa
C aCb

Round 1:

{ A, B}
SA

Round 2:

{ A, B, S }
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Lecture 09:

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Keep only the variables

that produce terminal symbols:

{ A, B, S }

(the rest variables are useless)

S aS | A | C
Aa
B aa
C aCb

S aS | A
Aa
B aa

Remove useless productions

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Lecture 09:

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Second: Find all variables

reachable from

Use a Dependency Graph

S aS | A
Aa
B aa

B
not
reachable
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Lecture 09:

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Keep only the variables

reachable from S
(the rest variables are useless)

S aS | A
Aa
B aa

Final Grammar

S aS | A
Aa

Remove useless productions

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Lecture 09:

Theory of Automata:08

Set of variables that Derive terminal

symbols

Input = CFG (V, , P , S)

TERM = { A | there is a rule Aw P with w

*
repeat

PREV = TERM
For each variable in A V do

If there is a rule A w and w (PREV U )* then

TERM = TERM U {A}

Until PREV = TERM

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Lecture 09:

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Example
Consider following CFG
G:
S AC | BS | B
A aA | aF
B CF | b
C cC | D
D aD | BD | C
E aA | BSA
F bB | b

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Lecture 09:

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New Grammar from

TERM will be
G T:
S BS | B
A aA | aF
Bb
E aA | BSA
F bB | b

S AC | BS | B
A aA | aF
B CF | b
C cC | D
D aD | BD | C
E aA | BSA
F bB | b

Iteration
0
1
2
3

TERM
{B, F}
{B, F, A, S}
{B, F, A, S, E}
{B, F, A, S, E}

PREV
{}
{B, F}
{B, F, A, S}
{B, F, A, S, E}
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Lecture 09:

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Construction of set of reachable Variables

Input = CFG (V, , P , S)

REACH = {S}
1. PREV = null
2. repeat
i. NEW = REACH PREV
ii. PREV = REACH
iii. For each variable A in NEW do
i.

For each rule A w do add all variables in w to

REACH

3. Until REACH = PREV

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Lecture 09:

Theory of Automata:08

G T:
S BS | B
A aA | aF
Bb
E aA | BSA
F bB | b

Iteration
0
1
2
3

REACH
{S}
{S, B}
{S, B}
{S, B}

PREV
{}
{S}
{S, B}
{S, B}

NEW
{S}
{B}

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Lecture 09:

Theory of Automata:08

Removing All

Step 1: Remove Nullable Variables

Step 2: Remove Unit-Productions
Step 3: Remove Useless Variables

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