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TECHNOLOGY
Ing. S. Castello
castello@casaccia.enea.it
ENEA, Renewable Sources Sector
July 2006
SUMMARY
PV plants features
Applications
Stand alone plants
Grid connected systems and Distributed
generation
Demonstrative projects
Tracking and concentrating systems
Market
PV industry
Plant and kWh costs
Diffusion programmes
PV TECHNOLOGY
The technology is relatively recent:
Foundation was laid in the early 50: first modern c-Si
cell discovery (Bell Telephone Laboratories)
1958: first application successful used in space
(Vanguard I)
late 70: starting of terrestrial application and
development of market.
From then on the technology has shown a steady
progress, the costs have recorded a constant reduction
but remain still high in comparison to the other
renewable sources
PV ENERGY ADVANTAGES
Use of an inexhaustible and free fuel
Environmentally friendly
Good reliability, higher than wind turbines or diesel
lasts more than 30 years
low maintenance cost
Fully automated operation
Low risk
capital intensive but low O&M costs
Modularity
the required power is obtained using a number of the same
building blocks
Exploitation of not utilized surfaces capability
PV can be mounted on roofs, integrated in building skin or
installed in marginal areas (deserts)
THE PV PLANTS
Systems able to collect and convert light into useful electricity
to be delivered to specific appliances or into the electric grid
2 main categories
Stand-alone: to supply isolated users (from consumer to
decentralized rural electrification)
Grid-connected: to fed power to the electric grid (from small
roofs to power stations)
plant components
PV array and power conditioning unit (PCU) or
modules and balance of system (BOS)
THE COMPONENTS
PV array (Pnom, Vw)
A number of PV modules
Cables and protection devices
Structure (to support and to expose the module for maximum
light capture)
PCU
Stand-alone plants
Matches the array output to the load requirements
Manages the storage system
Grid-connected plants
Convert the dc array output to standard ac power
Fit the PV array output to the grid (MPPT)
Control the quality of the energy supplied to the grid
(distortion and power factor correction)
THE COMPONENTS
PV modules
The smallest electrical unit of PV plants, formed with solar cells
assembled in series/parallel configuration
encapsulated
Mechanical and corrosive protection of cells and their
interconnection (long operation life)
Electrical isolation of the voltages generated
material used for encapsulation: glass tempered glass or plastic
frame: metal or plastic
features required
ultraviolet stability
tolerance to temperature and heat dissipation ability
self cleaning ability
THE COMPONENTS
BOS
Cabling
Switching and protection devices
Battery
Charge controller
Dc/ac inverter
Module supporting structures
Engineering
Labour to install a turn-key system
DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS
Consumer
Watches, calculators (mW), lamps (10 W)
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
First terrestrial high value applications (PV costs negligible in comparison to the
service provided)
Competitive with other small generating systems
Telecommunication
0,5 10 kW
Cathodic protection
0,5 5 kW
Signaling and data acquisition
0,1 1 kW
Park-meter or Emergency telephones (highway) 10 20 W
IEA Source
PV MODULES
DC LOADS
BATTERY
REMOTE DWELLINGS
DC LOADS
PV
GENERATOR
GENERATOR
CHARGE
CONTROLLER
BATTERY
DC/AC
INVERTER
COMMERCIAL
AC LOADS
VILLAGE ELECTRIFICATION
PV
GENERATOR
GENERATORE
CHARGE
CONTROLLER
BATTERY
DC/AC
INVERTER
RECTIFIER
LOADS
DIESEL
WATER PUMPING
PV
GENERATOR
GENERATORE
PV
GENERATOR
GENERATORE
DC/AC
INVERTER
(FREQUENCY
VARIABLE)
DC PUMP
PUMP
(CENTRIFUGAL
OR
RECIPROCATING)
WATER
TANK
CATTLE
WATERING
TANK
SPRINK
Applications:
Diffuse generation
Power stations
Grid support (weak feeder lines)
Small grid support (islands)
PV
GENERATORE
1 50 kW
> 1 MW
0,5 2 MW
100 500 kW
DC/AC
INVERTER
LOADS
GRID
GRID
PV MODULES
INVERTER
DOUBLE
COUNTER
COMMERCIAL AC LOADS
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
Small size plants (1 50 kW) connected to the LV grid (without battery)
Suited to be installed on buildings or other infrastructures (absence of
noise, moving parts, emissions)
Huge potential: south oriented roofs covered with PV could supply electricity
needs in many countries.
PV energy cost: still double with respect to the electricity cost paid by users
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
ADVANTAGES
Distributed exploitation of a diffused source
Production at the place of utilization (transmission
losses avoided)
Easy grid connection (battery)
User contribution in technology diffusion
Promotion of energy saving and more efficient
appliance
Exploitation of not utilized surfaces
Positive architectural valence in the urban contest
Possibility to combine energy production with building
envelop functions (saving of traditional building
components)
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
SOUND BARRIERS
Marginal spaces utilization
Use of noise barrier as
supporting structure
Use of PV module as noise
barrier element
Zig-zag structures to combine
noise absorption and production
maximization
Bifacial modules in north-south
highway direction
IEA source
POWER STATIONS
Typically from hundreds kW to several MW
Based on flat plate, tracking structures or concentration systems
To be utilized for electricity feeding into the grid
Hydrogen production (in future)
Electricity cost still high 20 40 c/kWh with respect to the one of
conventional electricity (2 6 c/kWh, depending on externalities)
GRID SUPPORT
DEMONSTRATION PLANTS
IN ITALY
Promoted by ENEA, ENEL, PV Industry, Municipalities
Major projects
PLUG (ENEA)
Serre (ENEL)
Vasto (ANIT)
PLANT
LOCATION
LOCATION
OF SOME
DEMO PLANTS
Zambelli, 70 kW
Water pumping
Casaccia, 100 kW
Car parking
Leonori, 86 kW
Car parkig
Giglio, 450 kW
Cold store
Altanurra, 100 kW
Grid-connected
Carloforte, 600 kW
PV-Wind
Vasto, 1000 kW
Power station
Delphos, 600 kW
Power station
Serre, 3300 kW
Power station
Vulcano, 180 kW
Grid support
Mandatoriccio, 216 kW
Grid-connected
Lamezia, 600 kW
PV-Wind
PLUG PROJECT
Development of a 100 kW standard plant for medium size applications
Aim: cost minimization
Standardization and preassembling of components
Modular architecture of systems
Civil works absence
Applications
Casaccia
(preexisting structures exploitation)
Delphos (modular concept)
Alta Nurra
(combined use of PV and wind)
Vulcano (high penetration of PV in small grid)
SERRE PROJECT
Development of a modular segment to be used in large size plants
operated by Utilities
Objectives
Verify of the projectual criteria adopted
Evaluation of scale effects on costs
Application
Serre plant: 9 fixed units + 1 tracking unit (horizontal north-south axes)
ANIT PROJECT
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Emission comparison
PV
30 gCO2 /kWh
Gas
400 gCO2 /kWh
Oil
800 gCO2 /kWh
BOS
ENERGETIC OCCURRENCE
kWh/m2
175
Cells formation
400
Module assembly
45
Supporting structures
50
Cabling + inverter
30
200
TOTAL OCCURRENCE
900
190
4.7 years
FUEL SAVING
CO2/kWh
0.77 kg
Emissions avoided 25 000 kg/kW
10,6%
9,54%, (-10%)
9,14%.
8,6%.
10% in 25 years
0,4% /year
MODULE FAILURES
module browning
Defects detected
after 25 years dont
have caused further
efficiency
degradation with
respect to the natural
degradation
(0,4%/year)
Tedlar leak
This experience
demonstrate that the
life time of old
generation, glasstedlar can be
considered around
30 years.
Grid oxidation
ARRAY DEGRADATION
data on efficiency and module failures have been collected for many
years from 2 arrays (at ENEA research centre)
the influence of module failure on efficiency degradation was found to
be very low if module failure occurs at rate <0.1 %/year
In this case module replacing could be not urgent
especially in BIPV or remote systems
unless the module failure (such as low-insulation loss) cause
chained failure of entire strings
Inverter failure
string failure
Inverter failure
Efficiency degrad
ation
Inverter substitution
failure
(PVgen or inverter)
n,
System tuning
tio
ure da
ail , ossi
le f
du tion )
Mo filtra tion
(in mina
a
d el
Module efficiency de
gradation (0,4%/a)
IMPACT ON LAND
Land occupation
Plant power
Yearly energy production
Domestic users supplied
Land required
1 MW
1.300 MWh
600 (in Italy)
1.5 hectares
PV POTENTIAL
PV AND ARCHITECTURE
BIFACIAL MODULES
- applications with
architectural constraints
- solar radiation
exploitation on both
sides of module
- larger energy
production (>10-20%)
with respect to standard
modules
- ease maintenance
against snow, dust and
bird dropping
TRACKING SYSTEMS
ONE AXIS TRACKING FLAT PLATE
north-south
axis tracking
flat plate
Tilt=latit
ude
2 axis
tracking
flat plate
STRUCTURES COMPARISON
FIXED
No maintenance
Simple mounting and
transport
content cost
Modest foundations
Less energy collected
modest aesthetical
result
TRACKING
Maintenance necessity
Exacting transport and
installation
Higher costs
Larger areas required
More energy collected
Harmonious
aesthetical result
CONCENTRATING PV
Solar radiation
Lens
PV cell
PV cell
CONCENTRATING PV
The incident energy is
almost the same with
respect to fixed plates
systems:
only the direct
component of light is
exploited
Concentrating
system
CONCENTRATOR MODULES
- Concentration factor: 100X
400X
- Lens efficiency: 80% - 85%
- cell cooling difficulty
- Inexpensive polymer lens
- lifetime not verified
CONCENTRATORS
Central tower
Dishes
Trough system
PHOCUS PROJECT
(PV Concentrators for Utility Scale)
Aim: assessment of technical and economical feasibility of PV concentration
for centralised generation
Ongoing activities
Optimisation of the most appropriate technologies for solar cells, optical
devices, concentrator modules, tracking system
Development of a 5 kW standard unit
c-Si cells optimised at 100-400 suns
refractive prismatic lenses
Experimentation on 5 units
Planned activities
Development of high efficiency cells
Investigation on optical devices based on Fresnel lenses and Compound
Parabolic Concentrators
CONCENTRATOR MODULE
Optical system
(prismatic
lenses)
Structure with
separators
PV cells
Heat sink
IEA source
Costs
84
85
91
91
93
94
96
INDICES OF PERFORMANCE
accessible on http://iea.tnc.ch
IEA source
INSTALLED POWER
- IEA countries: 2.8 GW
- Total: 3.3 GW
Worldwide
IEA
countries
- 1.2 MW in 2004
- Growth rate: 42%
- Projections for 2005:
4,5 GW
- applications: 70% of
small grid connected
systems
IEA source
IEA source
Impact of market
support in terms of
installed capacity per
capita:
- DEU: 10 W/c
- JPN: 9 W/c
- CHE: 3 W/c
- NLD: 3 W/c
- ITA: 0,5 W/c
IEA source
DISTRIBUTION OF APPLICATIONAS
- PV roofs : CHE, DEU,
GBR, JPN, NLD
- Vacation cottages: SWE
NOR, FIN
-Rural electrification:
MEX, FRA
- Commercial applications:
USA e AUS
IEA source
lighting
Economic industrial applications: 7 MW
telecommunication
signaling
cathodic protection
Demonstration (sharply increasing in the 90): 6,7 MW
Distributed generation, growing over the last year (rooftop
Programme): 17 MW
TOTAL: 36 MW
Rooftop
Programme
Demonstartion
Projects (UE)
Law 308: rural
electrification
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION
IEA source
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION
IEA source
MODULE MANUFACTURERS
ITALIAN PV INDUSTRY
2 major module manufacturer
Enitecnologie (ENI, Italys oil and gas giant)
Mono and multi-crystalline silicon cell and module production
Production capacity: 9 MW/year (4.2 MW last year)
Helios Technology
Fabrication of cells and modules from mono-crystalline silicon
wafers
Production capacity: 10 MW/year (7 MW last year)
p-Si
TECHNOLOGY PRODUCTION
PV INDUSTRY
Actions to be taken:
Development of a sustainable market driven by incentives
(implementation of deployment measures)
Rules clear and appropriate (overcome barriers related to
regulations, standards, safety)
budget adequate for R&D and activities coordination
Strengthen joint initiatives between research and industry
Adopt instruments to encourage investment
Promote BIPV through the development of PV components to be
used in buildings
Ensure the Si availability matter at acceptable costs
Optimize the recycling process
Cooperation with other high tech sectors (flat panel display, micro
electronics, nanotechnologies
MARKET EXPECTATION
STUDY COMPARISON
Growth
rate)
+60%
+40%
2000
c-Si
2010
thin film
Growth rate in the past: 20%
2020
SYSTEM PRICES
IEA Source
PRICES IN ITALY
Modules
Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
/W
3.5 4.3
3.1 3.9
2.9 3.7
3.2 - 4
Systems
Category
Off-grid (< 1 kWp)
Application
Lamps,
Rural electrification,
Industrial applications
Rooftops
Distributed generation
/Wp
10 - 13
68
5.5 - 7
COST DISTRIBUTION
small G.C. plants
CkWh:
0,3 0,35 /kWh
(grid-connected)
0,5 0,7 /kWh) (stand alone)
me
o
R
2010
o
m
r
e
Pal
Plant cost: 6 /W
maintenance : 1%
interest rate: 4%
optimal exposition
kWh cost:
30 c in Sicily
40 c in North Italy
55 c in Germany
0,
2
PV
PV/DIESEL
Daily load
GRID
m
0k
km
$/L
t5
ex
0.5
$/L
km
0,
4
0.7
5
t1
ex
Di
es
el
el
id
Gr
Di
es
id
Gr
0,
6
id
Gr
For SAS the comparison is done with diesel generator or grid extension.
In the case of small daily loads PV is not only cleaner and more reliable,
but also a cheaper option
GENERATION COSTS
900 h/a
G ri
sys d conn
tem
ect
ed
s
ro o
ftop
1800 h/a
(inc
Price payd by end user
luding taxes)
Bulk cost
In sunny countries, GCS will reach competitiveness with retail electricity in few years.
PV generation cost will began to compete with bulk production only within 20 years
PAY-BACK TIME
Net value actualized (/kW)
Payback time
years
MIXED INCENTIVES
c.c
.
Rooftop
programme
c.c
.=
=2
c.c
.=
0%
0%
Feed-in
tariff
7 5%
c.c.=
60 %
30
300
6.500
6.000
5.500
44,5+15
46,0+8
49,0+8
35
20
10
1.100
12
1.100
13
1.100
11
ADDED VALUE
Electric
Grid parameters improvement (peak, transmission losses)
Emergency
Environmental
Emission reduction, acid rain prevention
Architectural
Building functions (heat and noise insulation water and fire
protection electromagnetic reflection)
Socio-economic
Induced employment
Resource diversification
Technological transfer
incentives
28
14
-14
INCENTIVES
Country
Initiatives
ITALY
FRANCE
GERMANY
Feed-in law amended (50 c/kWh + soft loans). Budget in 2004: 250
M. Installed power 1400 MW
SPAIN
UK
JAPAN
USA
Subsidy and tax credit in California, Arizona, New Jersey, New York
and North Carolina for a total budget of 180 M$
CHINA
INDIA
NATIONAL PROGRAMS
STRATEGY AND MOTIVATION
Market growth (allowing companies to plan their
investments)
Technology diffusion
PV industries reinforcement
Definition of continuative R&D programs
New job opportunities
FINAL GOAL
Economic competitiveness achievement
Scale factor
Development of most competitive components
NATIONAL PROGRAMS
Public budget
IEA source
ECONOMIC BENEFITS
Year 2004
IEA Source
- component production
tend to move towards low
cost base economy
ITALIAN PV PROGRAMME
Strategic goals
PV cost decrease
Development of national competitive industries
Local development
New job opportunities
Relevant results
R&D area
GaAs (space/terrestrial
applications)
University of Milan
c-Si
University of Ferrara
c-Si
University of Parma
Compound films
a-Si
Hybrid systems
Medium size plants
Experimentation and long term performance analysis
21 Regional Programmes
DECREE 387/03
Tariffs (/kWh)
Further value
1 <> 20
0,445
20 <> 50
0,46
0,49 max.
50 <> 1000
FEED-IN TARIFFS
End user
Citizen, public
organization (limited
capital)
Investors, builders,
commercial subjects
(cash flow availability)
Management
Electric Utilities
Economic
consideration
To overcome economic
barrier in s.a or g.c.
applications
To internalize
externalities of
traditional sources
Problems
Dont encourage
investment for PV
CONCLUSIONS
Although impressive progress have already been made, the early stage of
PV development indicates a large margin of growth.
In the next 10-20 years is expected:
Efficiency 10-25% (35%: concentrators), lifetime 40 years
Electricity cost from PV: 5-15 c/kWh
Components based on abundant non toxic materials
Implementation of new concepts (III generation)
BIPV in all new building (net producer)
Multi MW in deserts (hydrogen production)
Cumulated power: 200-400 GW
Jobs created: 300 000
Electricity to 100 million families
CONCLUSIONS
In order to achieve the expected aims is necessary:
Define the strategies and the goals
Develop policy initiatives
Balance the efforts in R&D with the PV potential
Accelerate the transfer from research to production
Overcome the barriers (technical, standardization, financing,
market)
Strength the cooperation among sectors (electronics, buildings,
nanotechnologies)
Develop sustainable support measures (decreasing)
Foster the connection among R&D, Industry and Policy