SITE INVESTIGATION

Definition of Site
Investigation
It is a process for determining
engineering and mechanical
properties of natural soil layers.
The process consisting of
boring,
sampling and
testing.
2

The purpose of a soil

investigation program
1. Selection of the type and the depth of foundation
suitable for a given structure.
2. Evaluation of the load-bearing capacity of the
foundation.
3. Estimation of settlement of a structure.
4. Determination of potential foundation problems
(for example, expansive soil, collapsible soil,
sanitary landfill, and so on).
5. Establishment of ground water table.
6. Prediction of lateral earth pressure for structures
like retaining walls, sheet pile, and braced cuts.
7. Establishment of construction methods for
changing subsoil conditions.
3

The Importance of SI
Site

suitability.
Safe, practical and economic
design.
To determine difficulties.
To study the suitability of
construction material (soil or
rock).

EXPLORATION PROGRAM
The purpose of the exploration program is to
determine engineering properties of the soils.
strength,
deformation,
hydraulic characteristics.
The program should be planned for
maximum information,
minimum cost.

Steps of Soil Exploration

Boring:

Refers to drilling or advancing a hole in the ground.

The test would include hand auger, motorized hand boring
(wash boring), deep boring (rotary drilling), and/or trial pits.

Sampling:

Refers to removing soil from the hole. The

samples can be classified as disturbed or undisturbed
sampling. Disturbed samples are usually used for soil grainsize analysis, determination of liquid limit, specific gravity of
soil as well as compaction test and California bearing ratio
(CBR). The undisturbed samples are collected at least every
1.5 m and if changes occur within 1.5 m intervals, an
additional samples should be taken.

Testing:

Refers to determining the properties from the soil.

The test can be perform either at laboratory or at field.
Laboratory testing would normally be moisture content,
sieve analysis, liquid limit, compaction test, CBR and so
forth. Field test would include Standard Penetration Test
(SPT), Cone Penetration Test (CPT) and Vane test.
6

SI consists of two parts

Surface Investigations:
Site

inspection to assess general site condition if

there is any anticipated problems that might arise
during the construction later on.
Usually the engineer is required to inspect the site to
appreciate actual site and ground problems with
particular reference to terrain, vegetation, swamps,
water runoff, stratigraphical formations where it is
exposed.

Sub-surface Investigations:
Ground

or soil investigation by means of boring,

sampling, testing, and etc.
To determine the stratigraphy and pertinent
properties of soil underlying the project site.
7

Wok Procedure for SI

Desk

study to collect all the relevant

data and information,
Reconnaissance of site works,
Planning program after reviewing
Ground or soil exploration includes
boring, sampling and testing,
Laboratory testing (also field if
necessary),
Preparation and documentation of SI
report,
8

Steps of subsurface exploration

program [Stage 1] Desk Study
1. Assembly of all available information on
dimensions, column spacing, type and use of
the structure, basement requirements, and
any special architectural considerations of
the proposed building. Foundation
regulations in the local building code should
be consulted for any special requirements.
For bridges the soil engineer should have
access to type and span lengths as well as
pier loadings. This information will indicate
any settlement limitations, and can be used
to estimate foundation loads.
9

Steps of subsurface exploration

program [Stage 2]
2.Reconnaissance of the area:
A reconnaissance is a preliminary examination
or survey of a job site. First step is to collect and
study any pertinent information already
available. After collecting and studying the data
available, the engineers should visit the site in
person, observe thoroughly and interpret what is
seen. Results of reconnaissance help to
determine the scope of subsequent soil
exploration. It is important to locate any
underground utilities to assist in planning and
carrying out subsequent subsurface exploration.
10

Some typical steps in site

Reconnaissance
Details

on the ground surface for an

early observation,
Topographical characteristics, e.g.
flatland, hilly, swamps or pit area,
The possible location of the ground
water tables (GWT),
Interviewing the local residents for
further information,
Taking a lot of photographs of the
proposed site.
11

Steps of subsurface exploration

program [Stage 3]
3.A preliminary site investigation:
In this phase a few borings are made or a test pit
is opened to establish in a general manner the
stratification, types of soil to be expected, and
possibly the location of the groundwater table.
One or more borings should be taken to rock, or
competent strata, if the initial borings indicate
the upper soil is loose or highly compressible.
This amount of exploration is usually the extent
of the site investigation for small structures.

12

Steps of subsurface exploration

program [Stage 4]
4.A detailed site investigation:
Where the preliminary site
investigation has established the
feasibility of the project, a more
detailed exploration program is
undertaken. The preliminary borings
and data are used as a basis for
locating additional borings, which
should be confirmatory in nature, and
determining the additional samples

13

Site Exploration
Methods
Test Pits
Boreholes

Probes (In-situ Tests)

Geophysical
Choice of method depends on
budget, sampling requirements,
extent of investigation, and often
site conditions

14

Methods of Investigation
Test

pits:

Permits visual
inspection of
subsurface conditions
in natural state.
Max. depth limited to
18 -20 feet.
Especially useful for
gravelly soil where
boreholes may be
difficult.
Sampling/testing done
on exposed surfaces.
15

Hand
operated
augers

Power driven
augers
16

Stratigraphy and Finds

Layer

Soil

Soil Colour

Finds

Chronology

L1

Sandy soil

Gray 7.5YR 5/1

Modern Rubbish (filled soil)

1980s

L2

Sandy soil

Pinkish white 7.5YR 8/2

Modern rubbish (filled soil)

1980s

L3

Sandy soil

Reddish yellow 7.5YR 7/6

Modern rubbish (filled soil)

1980s

L4

Sandy soil

Gray 7.5YR 6/1

Modern rubbish (filled soil)

1980s

L5

Loamy soil

Reddish yellow 5YR 6/6

Nil (original decomposed soil)

L6

Loamy soil

Reddish yellow 5YR 6/8

Nil (original decomposed soil)

L7

Loamy soil, with

some
decomposed
bed rock texture

Light red 2.5YR 6/8

Nil (original decomposed soil)

Test Pit Wall Photograph

Western Wall Section

Test Pit Wall Drawing

Western Wall Section Drawing

17

SOIL BORING

18

Depth of Boring
The approximate required
minimum depth of the borings
should be predetermined. The
estimated depths can be
changed during the drilling
operation, depending on the
subsoil encountered. To
determine the approximate
minimum depth of boring,
engineers may use the following
rule:

19

Depth of Boring
1. Determine the net increase of stress,
under a foundation with depth as shown in
the Figure.
2. Estimate the variation of the vertical
effective stress, ', with depth.
3. Determine the depth, D = D1, at which the
stress increase is equal to (1/10) q (q =
estimated net stress on the foundation).
4. Determine the depth, D = D2, at which
/' = 0.05.
5. Unless bedrock is encountered, the
smaller of the two depths, D1 and D2, just
determined is the approximate minimum
depth of boring required. Table shows the
minimum depths of borings for buildings
based on the preceding rule.
20

Depth of Boring

Determination of the minimum depth of boring

21

Depth of Boring
Depth of Boring

22

Depth of Boring
For hospitals and office buildings, the
following rule could be used to determine
boring depth

23

Depth of Boring
When deep excavations are
anticipated, the depth of boring should
be at, least 1.5 times the depth of
excavation. Sometimes subsoil
conditions are such that the foundation
load may have to be transmitted to the
bedrock. The minimum depth of core
boring into the bedrock is about 3m. If
the bedrock is irregular or weathered,
the core borings may have to be
extended to greater depths.
24

Spacing Boring
There are no hard and fast rules
for the spacing of the boreholes.
The following table gives some
general guidelines for borehole
spacing. These spacing can be
increased or decreased, depending
on the subsoil condition. If various
soil strata are more or less uniform
and predictable, the number of
boreholes can be reduced.

25

Spacing Boring
Approximate Spacing of Boreholes

26

SOIL BORING
The earliest method of obtaining a test hole
was to excavate a test pit using a pick and
shovel. Because of economics, the current
procedure is to use power-excavation
equipment such as a backhoe to excavate the
pit and then to use hand tools to remove a
block sample or shape the site for in situ
testing. This is the best method at present for
obtaining quality undisturbed samples or
samples for testing at other than vertical
orientation.
27

Boring tools
Auger boring

Power drills

28

Boring tools

29

Boring tools

30

Boring
tools

31

Preparation of Boring Logs

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Name and address of the drilling company

Drillers name
Job description and number
Number, type, and location of boring
Date of boring
Subsurface stratification, which can he obtained by visual
observation of the soil brought out by auger, split-spoon
sampler, and thin-walled Shelby tube sampler
7. Elevation of water table and date observed, use of casing
and mud losses, and so on
8. Standard penetration resistance and the depth of SPT
9. Number, type, and depth of soil sample collected
10. In case of rock coring, type of core barrel used and, for
each run, the actual length of coring, length of core
recovery, and ROD
32

33

SOIL SAMPLING
Two types of soil samples can be obtained
during sampling disturbed and undisturbed.
The most important engineering properties
required for foundation design are strength,
compressibility, and permeability.
Reasonably good estimates of these
properties for cohesive soils can be made by
laboratory tests on undisturbed samples
which can be obtained with moderate
difficulty. It is nearly impossible to obtain a
truly undisturbed sample of soil; so in
general usage the term "undisturbed" means
a sample where some precautions have been
taken to minimize disturbance or remolding
effects. In this context, the quality of an
"undisturbed" sample varies widely between
soil laboratories.
34

Disturbed vs Undisturbed
Good quality samples
necessary.
AAR<10
R<10
%
%
soil

O.D.2 I .D.2
AR
100 (%)
2
I . D.
area
arearatio
ratio

sampling tube

Thicker the wall, greater the

disturbance.
35

Disturbed vs Undisturbed

36

Common Sampling
Methods

37

ROCK SAMPLING
Rock

cores are necessary if

the soundness of the rock is
to be established.
small cores tend to break up
inside the drill barrel.
Larger cores also have a
tendency to break up (rotate
inside the barrel and
degrade), especially if the
rock is soft or fissured.
38

Rock coring

39

ROCK SAMPLING Definition

40

Rock Core Drilling

Done

with either
tungsten carbide or
diamond core bits
Use a double or triple
tube core barrel when
sampling weathered
or fractured rock
Used to determine
Rock Quality
Designation

core barrel

41

Rock Quality Designation

RQD

42

Rock Quality Designation

RQD
Rock Quality Designation (RQD) is defined as the percentage of rock
cores that have length equal or greater than 10 cm over the total drill
length.

43

Example on Core Recovery &

RQD
Core

run of 150

cm
Total core
recovery = 125
cm
Core recovery
ratio = 125/150 =
83%
On modified basis,
95 cm are counted
44

GROUND WATER TABLE

LEVEL
Groundwater conditions and the
potential for groundwater seepage are
fundamental factors in virtually all
geotechnical analyses and design
studies. Accordingly, the evaluation of
groundwater conditions is a basic
element of almost all geotechnical
investigation programs. Groundwater
investigations are of two types as
follows:
Determination of groundwater levels
and pressures.
Measurement of the permeability of
the subsurface materials.
45

FIELD STRENGTH TESTS

The following are the major field
tests for determining the soil
strength:
1. Vane shear test (VST).
2. Standard Penetration Test (SPT).
3. Cone Penetration Test (CPT).
4. The Borehole Shear Test (BST).
5. The Flat Dilatometer Test (DMT).
6. The Pressure-meter Test (PMT).
7. The Plate Load Test (PLT).

46

FIELD STRENGTH TESTS

47

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

48

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

49

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Corrections are normally applied to the
SPT blow count to account for
differences in:
energy imparted during the test
(60%
hammer efficiency)
the stress level at the test depth
The following equation is used to
compensate for the testing factors
(Skempton, 1986):

50

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

51

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

52

Anvil

63.5-kg Drop
Hammer
Repeatedly
Falling 0.76 m

Split-Barrel
(Drive) Sampler:
O.D. = 50 mm
I.D. = 35 mm
L = 760 mm

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

N = measured Number of Blows
to drive sampler 300 mm into
soil.

53

54

The meaning of SPT- N

value

SPT- N value in sandy soil indicates the friction

angle in sandy soil layer
SPT- N value in clay soil indicates the stiffness
the clay stratum

55

Correlation between Fiction Angle

() & SPT-N Value

Hatakanda and Uchida Equation (1996)

= 3.5 x (N)

0.5

+ 22.3

where, = friction angle

N = SPT value
Note:
This equation ignores the particle size.
Most tests are done on medium to coarse sands
Fine sands will have a lower friction angle.

56

Correlation between Friction Angle ( ) SPT(N )

Value
contd.
Hatakanda and Uchida Equation (1996)
Modified

= 3.5 x (N) 0.5 + 20

fine sand

= 3.5 x (N) 0.5 + 21

medium sand

= 3.5 x (N) 0.5 + 22

coarse sand
where= friction angle
N = SPT value

57

Cone Penetration Test

(CPT)

58

59

60

Details of a piezocone

61

Cone Penetration Test

(CPT)

62

63

Cone Penetration Test

(CPT)

64

Detail interpretation

65

Cone Penetration Test

(CPT)

66

Cone Penetration Test

(CPT)

67

The Plate Load Test (PLT)

68

The Plate Load Test (PLT)

69

The Plate Load Test (PLT)

70

The Plate Load Test (PLT)

Scale Effect in Foundation Design

71

Geophysical Methods

72

Seismic

cone:
measures tip
and sleeve
resistance,
pore water
pressure, and
shear and
compression
photo courtesy of Fugro
waves
Geosciences, Inc.
(http://www.geo.fugro.com)

 ground
penetrating radar:
uses pulses of
radar, can be
used to locate
buried features
such as pipes,
tanks, Bedrock
etc

Sinkhole

photos courtesy of GeoModel

(http://www.geomodel.com)
74

Geotechnical Design Reports

At

the end of all subsoil exploration

programs, the soil and/or rock specimens
collected from the field are subjected to
visual observation and appropriate
laboratory testing. After the compilation of
all of the required information, a soil
exploration report is prepared for the use of
the design office and for reference during
future construction work. Although the
details and sequence of information in the
report may vary to some degree is
depending on the structure under
consideration and the person compiling the
report.
75

How do we present site

investigation data?
Borehole logs
What does it contain?

Factual information about the

borehole
Soil profile

sampling done
Laboratory tests carried out
in-situ tests carried out
76

Site Investigation Report

1. A description of the scope of the investigation
2. A description of the proposed structure for which the subsoil
exploration has been conducted
3. A description of the location of the site, including any structures
nearby, drainage conditions, the nature of vegetation on the site
and surrounding it, and any other features unique to the site
4. A description of the geological setting of the site
5. Details of the field explorationthat is, number of borings, depths
of borings, types of borings involved, and so on
6. A general description of the subsoil conditions, as determined
from soil specimens and from related laboratory tests, standard
penetration resistance and cone penetration resistance, and soon
7. A description of the water-table conditions
8. Re commendations regarding the foundation, including the type
of foundation recommended, the allowable hearing pressure, and
any special construction procedure that may he needed;
alternative foundation design procedures should also be discussed
in this portion of the report
9. Conclusions and limitations of the investigations
77

Site Investigation Report

The following graphical presentations
should he attached to the report:
1. A site location map
2. A plan view of the location of the
borings with respect to the proposed
structures and those nearby
3. Boring logs
4. Laboratory test results
5. Other special graphical presentations

78

79

Soil
investigati
on
report

80

Example Table
of Contents
for
a Geotechnical
Investigation
(Data) Report

81

Underground Construction
Stabilizing

foundation
Ground water controlling
Excavating soil
Providing support

82

Horizontal excavation
Sewages

pipeline
Telecommunication and electric
cables
Road
Tunnel

83

Management of Ground Water problem

in substructure construction
The

ground water can flood the

excavated area
Excavated area can collapse due
to seepage force by the inflow of
water
Seeping water can create erosion
and leading to piping, instability
and large soil movement
84

Managing ground water

Dewatering

soil using wells and

pumps prior to excavation
Allowing water to seep into the
excavated area, collecting it in
sumps and pumping
Making the soil around excavation
zone impermeable such as jet
ground or freezing
Preventing inflow of ground water
into the area under excavation
85

Excavation support
sequence
Excavation

without side support

Dry fine grain soil = high shear

strength
Dry coarse grain soil = low shear
strength
Dry; 1.5:1.0 (horizontal/vertical )
Saturated; 3.0:1.0 (horizontal/vertical )
86

Excavation

with side support

Bracing
Sheet pile
Retain wall
Soil nailing
Board pile
Segmental lining
Raker
Rib
87