MOMENTUM

TRASNFER
INTRODUCTION
TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
BY
BIRD, STEWART AND LIGHTFOOT

INTRODUCTION

Q.
What are Transport Phenomena ?
Ans. A combination of three closely related topics
Fluid Dynamics
Heat Transfer
Mass Transfer
Q.
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

Momentum Transfer/Transport
Energy Transfer/Transport
Chemical Species Mass Transfer/Transport

Why these transfer processes be studied together ?

The basic molecular mechanism of the three transfer processes is
very similar. The same molecules transfer momentum, energy
and mass, through viscosity, thermal conductivity and diffusivity
They very frequently occur simultaneously in nature
The basic equations describing these transfer processes are very
closely related
The close similarity of these equations lead to analogies
Mathematics required to solve the three transfer processes
equations is also very similar

INTRODUCTION, contd. - 2

THREE LEVELS OF STUDY OF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA

1.
Macroscopic Level
2.
Microscopic Level
3.
Molecular Level
Integral Analysis

Macroscopic Level

A Macroscopic Balance of
1. Mass
2. Momentum
3. Energy
Due to various inputs & outputs
from our control volume

No attempt to understand the

details of what is going on
within the control volume
Mainly used for the global
assessment of the problem

INTRODUCTION, contd. - 3

Differential Analysis

Microscopic Level

A Microscopic Balance of
An attempt to understand the
1. Mass
details of what is going on
2. Momentum
within the control volume
3. Energy
Due to various inputs & outputs
from our control volume
Mainly used to get information of
1. Velocity profiles
2. Temperature profiles
3. Concentration profiles

To understand the process and optimize it

INTRODUCTION, contd. - 4
Molecular Level

To seek the fundamental understanding of the process of

1. Mass transfer
2. Momentum transfer
3. Energy transfer
In terms of molecular structure & intermolecular forces
A job primarily for
1. Theoretical Physicists
2. Physical Chemist
Some times Engineers/applied scientists do get involved in cases of
3. Complex molecules
4. Extreme temperatures/pressures
5. Chemical Reacting Flows

INTRODUCTION, contd. - 5
Each of these levels involve typical length scales
Macroscopic Level

Order of cm or m

Microscopic Level

Micron to cm range

Molecular Level

1 to 1000 nanometers

Requirements For Good Understanding Of This Subject

MATHEMATICS, Differential Equations, Vectors, Calculus
Physical Interpretation of key mathematical results
Get into the habit of relating physical ideas to
equations
Comparison of intuition and results obtained
Understanding of dimensional analysis

VISCOSITY, MOMENTUM TRANSFER

MECHANISM
CONCEPT OF VISCOSITY
Cricket
Stadium
Gate

Friction is felt only when you move either slower or faster than the
other spectators.
Extent of friction depends on the type of clothes they are wearing.
It is this type of clothes that gives rise to the concept of viscosity.

Viscosity and Newtons Law of

Example of two parallel plates
Viscosity

Top layer stationary,

Bottom layer moves with constant velocity V
A fluid is filled between the plates
No slip condition between fluid and plates at both the plate surfaces

Shear force acting on the second

molecular layer of fluid is due to
the difference in the velocities of
the two adjacent layers

Viscosity & Newtons Law of

Fluid initially
at
Viscosity,
contd.
-2
t<0

y
x

t=0

y
x

V
vx(y, t)

y
x

small t

V
vx(y)

large t

y
x

Common sense suggests the following.

1. A constant force F is required to
Lower plate
maintain the motion of lower plate
set in motion
2. This force is directly proportional to
1. Area of plates
Velocity buildup
2. Velocity of lower plate
in unsteady flow
3. This force is inversely proportional
Final velocity
to
distribution in
1. Distance between the plates
rest

steady flow

Mathematical Interpretation Of Common Sense

F V

A Y

The force applied, F is the shear force

F
V

A
Y

Note, directions of V & y

V/Y is the gradient or slope

dv
V
x
Y
dy

Viscosity & Newtons Law of Viscosity,

contd.The
-3shear stress exerted in the x-direction on a
fluid surface of constant y by the fluid in the
region of lesser y is designated as
Shear Stress
Fluid surface of constant y, Shear
force on unit area perpendicular to
the y-direction
The shear stress is moving in the
direction of y because the bottom layer
of fluid exerts a shear stress on the next
layer which then exerts a shear stress on
subsequent layer

yx
x-direction

Shear stress is induced by the motion

of the plate. Shear stress can be
induced by a pressure gradient or a
gravity force.
Pressure force is a force acting on a
surface while the gravity force is the
force acting on a fluid volume

Viscosity and Newtons Law of

The shear
stress is -4
a function of
Viscosity,
contd.
1. Velocity gradient
2. Properties of the fluid

If this functional dependence is linear:

fluids are called Newtonian Fluids

yx

dvx

dy

Where, vx = fluid velocity in the x-direction

= fluid viscosity, a property of the fluid, not the physical system
The viscosity of Newtonian fluids is constant
Behaviour Of Gases At Moderate Pressures
Viscosity Is Independent Of Pressure

Increases With Temperature

The temperature dependence is between T0.6 and T. Some theories are available.

Viscosity and Newtons Law of

Viscosity,Behaviour
contd.
-5
Of Liquids

Viscosity Is Independent Of Pressure

Decreases With Temperature

Units of viscosity is g/cm/sec (poise) or Pa-s.

Magnitudes:
Air @ 20C

0.00018 g/cm/sec

Liquid water @ 20 C 0.001 Pa-s, 0.01 g/cm/s

Non-Newtonian Fluids
For non-Newtonian fluids
The functional dependence between
The shear stress and the velocity gradient is more complex.
We can write in the most general format:

non-Newtonian

dv
f yx , x , fluid properties 0
dy

Newtonian

yx

non-Newtonian

dvx dy

Non-Newtonian Fluids, contd.

Mathematically one can write for Non-Newtonian Fluids in the form
-2
yx

dvx

dy

Where,
= Apparent Fluid Viscosity, a function of either yx / dvx/dy / both
Effects of
1. Apparent fluid viscosity is dependent on the current state of fluid
2. If apparent viscosity decreases with increasing rate of shear (-dvx/dy)
1. The behaviour is termed pseudoplastic
3. If apparent viscosity increases with increasing rate of shear (-dvx/dy)
1. The behaviour is termed dilatant

Non-Newtonian Fluids, contd.

Models of Non-Newtonian fluids
-3
Bingham model: applicable for fine suspensions and pastes Bingham
Ostwald-de Waele model: e.g. used for CMC in water

Ostwald

Eyring model: derived from the Eyring kinetic theory

Eyring

Ellis model: CMC in water

Reiner-Philippoff model

Ellis

Reiner

Non-Newtonian Fluids, contd.

Graphical representation of two-parameter model
-4
Things To Remember
These models are empirical, that is
the parameters of the models are
obtained by curve fitting
The parameters are function of T, P
and composition
These model equations should not
be used outside their range of
validity.

Prediction of Viscosity of Gases &

Liquids
c 61.6 MTc

12

2 3
V%
OR
c

c 7.7 M 1 2 pc 2 3Tc 1 6
N

pc x pc ,Tc x Tc , c x c
2 mKT
2

3 d2
3

mKT
d2

END OF CHAPTER ONE

Models of Non-Newtonian fluids - 1

Models of Non-Newtonian fluids - 2

Models of Non-Newtonian fluids - 3

Models of Non-Newtonian fluids 4

Models of Non-Newtonian fluids 5

MOMENTUM TRASNFER

SHELL BALANCE
AND
VELOCITY DISTRIBUTIONS
IN
TRANSPORT PHENOMENA
LAMINAR FLOWBY
BIRD, STEWART AND

SHELL BALANCE

SHELL BALANCE
A mathematical expression showing the balance of rate of change of
momentum and forces acting on the control volume.
(NEWTONS SECOND LAW OF MOTION)
2. Balance is made on a small shell of dimensions x, y, z
3. All quantities are written in terms of fluxes
4. Solution gives velocity distribution leading to maximum velocity,
average velocity, flow rates and stresses at surfaces etc
5. This procedure of analysis is called analysis through first principle
6. Generally can be applied to simple geometries and idealized flow
situations
7. A combination of these simple analysis lead to complex
geometries and flow systems
8. Simple system analysis help in understanding complex systems

SHELL BALANCE BY 1st PRINCIPLE

PROCEDURE OF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA ANALYSIS
1. Draw a physical diagram.
2. Identify all transport mechanisms
3. Set a frame of coordinates and draw the direction of all transport
processes identified in step 2.
4. Draw a shell, whether it be one, two or three dimensional
depending on the number of transport direction, such that its
surfaces are perpendicular to the transport direction.
5. Carry out the momentum shell balance as below:
Rate of

Momentum
In

Rate of
All forces acting

0
on the system
Momentum Out

This should give a first-order ODE in terms of shear stress

SHELL BALANCE BY 1st PRINCIPLE,

contd.
- Of
2 Transport Phenomena Analysis, contd.
Procedure
If the fluid is Newtonian, apply the Newton law. However, if the
fluid is non-Newtonian, apply any appropriate non-Newtonian law
empirical equation.
This should give a second order ODE in terms of velocity.
Impose physical constraint on the boundary of the physical system.
This gives rise to boundary conditions.
Note that the number of boundary conditions must match the order
of the differential equation.
9. Solve the equation for the velocity distribution.
10. Then obtain the mean velocity, flow rate and the shear force.

BOUNDARY
CONDITIONS
Common Boundary Conditions in Fluid Mechanics
NO-SLIP AT THE WALL
Also called boundary condition of the first kind (Dirichlet BC)
At solid-fluid interface, the fluid velocity equals to the velocity of
the solid surface.
V
V
fluid at the wall

wall

SYMMETRY
At the plane of symmetry in flows the velocity field is the same on
either side of the plane of symmetry, the velocity must go through a
minimum or a maximum at the plane of symmetry.
Thus, the boundary condition to use is that the first derivative of the
velocity is zero at the plane of symmetry

Vx
y

0
at the plane of symmetry

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS,
contd. STRESS
- 2 CONTINUITY

When a fluid forms one of the boundaries of the flow, the stress is
continuous from one fluid to another, there are two possibilities
1. For a viscous fluid in contact with an inviscid (zero or very low
viscosity fluid)
1. At the boundary, the stress in the viscous fluid is the same
as the stress in the inviscid fluid.
2. Since the inviscid fluid can support no shear stress (zero
viscosity) this means that the stress is zero at this interface.
3. The boundary condition between a fluid such as a polymer
and air, for example, would be that the shear stress in the
polymer at the interface would be zero.

ij

at the boundary of two fluids

This is also called Boundary Condition of Second Kind

OR Newmann BC

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS, contd. STRESS CONTINUITY, contd.

3
Alternatively if two viscous fluids meet and form a flow boundary,
1. This same boundary condition would require that the stress in
one fluid equal the stress in the other at the boundary.

ij fluid 1 at the boundary ij fluid 2

at the boundary

VELOCITY CONTINUITY
When a fluid forms one of the boundaries of the flow then along
with stress at the boundary, the velocity is also continuous from
one fluid to another.

V fluid 1

at the boundary

V fluid 2

at the boundary

This is also called Boundary Condition of Fourth Kind

SHELL BALANCE, EXAMPLE-1

Example 1: Flow on flat plate
Step 1: Draw the physical diagram
y
x

Shell

Direction of
Transport

W x+x

Example 1: Flow on flat plate,

contd.
Step-2:2
Possible transport mechanism

Transport of shear across the thickness of the film.

Step 3: Frame of coordinates and direction of transport

Choose a frame of coordinate (x,z) with x across the film and
z along the film.
The direction of transport is in the x-direction.
Step 4: Draw a shell
The shell is one dimensional as there is only one transport
direction.
The shell is drawn such that the surfaces are at x and x+x,
which are perpendicular to the direction of transport.

Example 1: Flow on flat plate,

Step 5: Momentum balance
contd. - 3
Rate of z-momentum in at the surface at x = x

WL xz x
surface area

shear (force/area) at the

surface x

Rate of z-momentum out at surface x = x + x

WL xz x x
surface area

shear (force/area) at the

surface x+ x

Gravity force in the z-direction acting on the volume of the shell =

WLx g cos
Volume of Shell

gravity force per unit volume in zdirection

Example 1: Flow on flat plate,

Momentum balance equation
contd. - 4
WL xz x WL xz xx WLx g cos 0

Divide the equation by the volume of the shell and make the shell
as thin as possible:
lim

x 0

xz

x x

xz

Definition of derivative:
x

g cos 0

d f ( x)
f ( x x ) f ( x )
lim
x 0
dx
x

The momentum balance equation is finally a differential equation

(valid at any point in the fluid film)
d xz
xz g cos x C
g cos
Linear
dx
Upon deriving this equation nothing has been said about the fluid behavior.
Hence, it is applicable to Newtonian as well as non-Newtonian fluids.

Example 1: Flow on flat plate,

From
this step onward,
contd.
-5
we have to decide that
what kind of fluid we are
dealing with

Step 6: Apply the Newtonian law

dv z
xz
dx

d xz
g cos
dx

d 2 vz
g cos

2
dx

second-order ODE in
terms of velocity

Example 1: Flow on flat plate,

At solid-fluid interface
Step 7: Impose physical constraint
contd.
the
velocity is zero - 6
is zero at the gasliquid interface

x=0

x0

xz

vz 0

dv z
0
dx

x=

Step 8: Solve ODE for velocity distribution

d 2 vz
g cos

2
dx

g 2 cos
vz

g cos 2
vz
x C1 x C2
2

x
1

xample 1: Flow on flat plate, contd.

x
1

g 2 cos
vz

Is the velocity distribution

of any use to us? Sort of

This is the velocity distribution in the film. It is

parabolic in shape (only for Newtonian fluids)

Step 9: Useful quantities

Maximum velocity

Average velocity
g 2 cos
vz

volumetric flow rate

x
1

Shear force acting

on solid surface

xample 1: Flow on flat plate, contd. vz

Maximum velocity

max, at x = 0

g 2 cos

Average velocity
(defined as the mean velocity when multiplied by the
cross section area will give the volumetric flow rate)
W

v dxdy
z

vz

0 0
W

dxdy

1
v z dx
0

g 2 cos
2
vz

v z, max

3
3

0 0

Volumetric flow rate

Shear force acting on solid surface

gW 3 cos
Q

Fz g WL cos

Example 1: Flow on flat plate,

What if the fluid is non-Newtonian
contd. - 6
Step 6: Apply the Appropriate Non-Newtonian model
Let us try the Ostwald-de Waele model for non-Newtonian fluids
dvz
xz m
dx

n 1

dvz
dx

d dvz
m
g cos

dx dx

A Nonlinear ODE

Momentum Equation
d xz
g cos
dx

Step 7: physical constraint

x0

dv
xz m z
dx

vz 0

n 1

dv z
0
dx

xample 1: Flow on flat plate, contd. Step 8: Solving for Velocity Distribution
n
vz
n 1

n 1

g cos

x
1

vz

Average velocity

n
vz

2n 1

Volumetric flow rate

n 1

Maximum velocity

max, at x = 0

n1

n 1

n 1

g cos

g cos

nW 2 n 1 gW cos
Q

2n 1
m

1
n

xample 1: Flow on flat plate, contd. For 3% CMC in water, n= 0.566

vz
vz

max

x
1

2.77

Compare with
Newtonian Fluids

Stronger than parabolic

dependence

vz
vz

max

x
1

Non-Newtonian fluid
Newtonian fluid

1.0

Implication of this example:

This study of thin film is useful in
the analysis of:
1. wetted wall tower
2. evaporation and gas absorption
3. coating to paper
4. drainage from large tanks/plates

V/(V)max

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
x/

EX-2: Flow Of Incompressible Fluids IN A

Circular Tube
Differences in Problem Definition as compared to Flat Plate

Flat plate

Circular tube

Laminar flow
No end effects
Rectangular
Gravity as the
driving force

Laminar flow
No end effects
Cylindrical
Gravity force &
Pressure force

The procedure of solving the flat plate problem is used here to

solve this problem.

ple-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube, con

Step 1: Draw the physical diagram
Direction of transport
r
R
0

r
r+r
z
L

z+z

Shell

ple-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube, con

Step 2: Transport mechanism
1. Transport of rate of momentum in the r-direction.
2. Transport of rate of momentum in the z-direction.
Step 3: Frame of coordinates
Chosen as shown in the diagram
Typical for any system having cylindrical geometry
Step 4: Draw a shell
Shell in this case is an annulus having surfaces perpendicular to
the direction of momentum transport.
Shell is at the position (r,z) and has thicknesses r and z in the
r and z coordinates, respectively.

Example-2: Flow Through A Circular

Step 5: Momentum
shell balance
Tube, contd.
-4
Rate of z-momentum in the shell across the cylindrical surface at r =

2 r z rz r , z
Surface contact area

shear (force/area) at the

surface r

Rate of z-momentum out across the cylindrical surface at r+ r =

2 r r z rz r r , z
Surface contact area

shear (force/area) at the

surface r + r

Example-2: Flow Through A Circular

Tube,
contd.
-5in across the annular surface at z =
Rate of
z-momentum
2 r r v z r , z )

v z r , z )
Mass flow rate

Cross-sectional area
Volumetric flow rate

Rate of z-momentum out across the annular surface at z+z =

2 r r v z r , z z )

v z r , z z )

Example-2: Flow Through A Circular

Pressure force
Tube, contd.
-6 acting on the z surface:
2 r r p z
Cross-sectional area

Pressure along z

Pressure force acting on the z+z surface:

2 r r p z z
Gravity force acting on the shell volume along z direction:

2 r r z g cos
Volume of the shell

Weight force of the fluid in shell

Ex-2: Flow Through A Circular

1. Add
all the terms
Tube,
contd. -7
2. Divide through out by the volume of shell
3. Take the limits by making the shell as thin as possible

Momentum balance equation after the shell is made as thin as

possible
v 2z
1
p

g cos 0
r rz
r r
z
z

equal to zero as vz is independent of z

1. the fluid is incompressible
2. The tube area is constant

Independent of r

First-order ODE in terms of shear

stress

Ex-2: Flow Through A Circular

Final momentum
Tube, contd.
-8 balance equation

1
p

g
cos

rz
0
r r
z

C1 is zero because the shear

stress must be finite at r=0
applicable to any fluids
shear stress is a linear function of r

1
p

g
cos

rz

r r
z

C1
1 dp

rz g cos r
2 dz
r

1 dp

rz g cos r
2 dz

Ex-2: Flow Through A Circular

Step 6: Newtonian law
Tube, contd. -9
rz
1 dp

rz g cos r
2 dz

Step 7: Physical constraints

dv z
at r = 0,
0
dr

at r = R, v z 0

dv z
dr

Ex-2: Flow IN A Circular Tube,

contd.
9.1
Parabolic
velocity distribution
at r = R, v z 0

rz

rz max

r R

r 0

at r = 0, v z v z max

Po PL R

2L

Linear momentum
flux distribution rz ( r )

Ex-2: Flow IN A Circular Tube,

Step 8: Velocity distribution
contd. -10
vz

Po PL R 2

1
4 L

r

R

Parabolic profile

Step 9: Useful quantities

Maximum
velocity

Average
velocity

Volumetric
flow rate

Force of fluid
on wetted wall

Ex-2: Flow IN A Circular Tube,

P P R

contd.
-11
v

Maximum velocity, at r = 0
2

z max, r 0

Volumetric flow rate

Integrate the differential
volumetric flow rate

4 L

differential volumetric flow rate

dQ 2 rdr v z r
R

Q dQ 2 rdr v z r
0

Po PL R 4
Q
8 L

Measured

Can be measured easily

Calculated

Ex-2: Flow IN A Circular Tube,

contd. -12 Q P P R
4

8 L

HPE

Famous Hagen-Poiseuille equation

Often used to determine fluid viscosity
Po PL R 2

Q
dP R 2
vz

2
R
8 L
dz 8

Average velocity

Force exerted by the flowing fluid on the walls of tube

F rz

rR

dv
z
dr

surface area on which

r R
this shear force acts

Ex-2: Flow IN A Circular Tube,

contd. -13F 2 RL P P R
o

2L

Inner Surface area of tube

Shear Stress at the wall

Results obtained are for Newtonian fluids.

For non-Newtonian fluids, substitute the appropriate model equation
after step-5.
FOR NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS
Step 6: Apply the Appropriate Non-Newtonian model
Let us try the Ostwald-de Waele model for non-Newtonian fluids

Ex-2: Flow through a circular

tube,
contd. -14
dv
dv
n 1

rz m

dr

dr

1 dp

rz g cos r
2 dz

n R n Po PL
vz

n 1 2m
L
n1

1 R
vz

2 2m
2

Compare with

Po PL
r
1
L
R

r
1

n1

For n = 1

Ex-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube,

Try the
Bingham model for non-Newtonian fluids
contd.
-15
The shear is zero at center of the
tube and maximum at surface of the
tube; thus, one expects a plug flow
region in the central part of the tube.
Max finite shear at wall r=R

shear
stress
profile

dv z
rz o
o ; if rz o
dr
dv z
0; if rz o
dr

zero slip at wall

zero shear at r=0

ro

dv z
=0
dr

Velocity
profile

Physical Constraints of Bingham fluids

Ex-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube,

Velocity distribution
contd.
-16 of a Bingham fluid flow in a circular tube
2
P

P
R

v >z o L
4 o L

r
1

2
P

P
R

v <z o L
4 o L

oR r
1

o R

ro
1 R

FOR, r ro

FOR, r ro

Critical radius ro and o where dvz/dr=0

2 L o
ro
Po PL

ro Po PL
o
2L

Ex-2: Flow Through A Circular Tube,

contd. -17For Volumetric flow rate
Q

2 R

ro

0 0

ro

<
>
v
r
dr
d

v
rdr

v
z
z
z rdr

Po PL R 4
1 o
4 o
1
Q
8 o L
3 R

3 R

for R o

For practice do examples of

1. Annular flow
2. Flow of two immiscible liquids
END OF CHAP-2

HAGEN-POISEUILLE EQUATION
LIMITATIONS
a. The flow
is laminar; that is, Re < 2100.
b. The density is constant (incompressible flow).
c. The flow is steady (i.e., it does not change with time).
d. The fluid is Newtonian
e. End effects are neglected. Entrance Length, of the order of L e =
0.035D Re, is needed for the buildup to the parabolic profile. If
the section of pipe of interest includes the entrance region, a
correction must be applied.
f. The fluid behaves as a continuumthis assumption is valid,
except for very dilute gases or very narrow capillary tubes, in
which the molecular mean free path is comparable to the tube
diameter (the slip flow region) or much greater than the tube
diameter (the Knudsen flow or free molecule flow regime).
g. There is no slip at the wall, so that B.C. 2 is valid