Lesson II

Morality and psychological

development

A/ Egoism vs Altruism
Callicles challenge:
Both among the other animals and
in whole cities and races of men,
nature shows that this is what justice
has been decided to be: that the
superior rule the inferior and have a
greater share than they.

A/ Egoism vs Altruism

Are we moral egoists?

Does altruism exist within nature? Is
it genuine altruism? What about
within human nature?
When acting for our own interest, is it
always egoism the best strategy?
Why ought we act the way nature is?

A/ Egoism vs Altruism
Jokers social experiment

A/ Egoism vs Altruism
The prisoners dilemma
Two members of a criminal gang are arrested and
imprisoned. Each prisoner is in solitary confinement with
no means of speaking to or exchanging messages with
the other. The police admit they don't have enough
evidence to convict the pair on the principal charge. They
plan to sentence both to a year in prison on a lesser
charge. Simultaneously, the police offer each prisoner a
bargain. Here's how it goes:
If A and B both confess the crime, each of them
serves 2 years in prison
If A confesses but B denies the crime, A will be set
free whereas B will serve 3 years in prison (and vice
versa)

A/ Egoism vs Altruism
The prisoners dilemma shows that
egoism does not always produces the
best outcome, some situations require
cooperation. The fact that man is wolf
to man does not entail that society
ought to reproduce the natural war of
all against all as Callicles states. But is
this useful or interested cooperation
genuine altruism? Even if our nature is
selfish, ought we act selfishly?

A/ Egoism vs Altruism
-

Psychological egoism: each person

has but one ultimate aim, her own
welfare.

Ethical egoism: it is necessary and

sufficient for an action to be morally
right (that is, rational) that it
maximizes ones self interest.

A/ Egoism vs Altruism
- Evolutionary altruism: the behavior of an
organism is altruistic if it reduces its own
fitness while increasing the fitness of one
or more organisms. In fact, cooperation and
sacrifice are good biological strategies
within certain contexts.
- Psychological altruism: empathy, an
other-oriented emotional reaction to seeing
someone suffer, which would incline
persons to engage in helping behavior.

A/ Egoism vs Altruism
It seems obvious that altruistic behavior (in
an evolutionary and psychological sense)
exists, but what about the nature of the
motivation for the helping behavior?
Does morality depend on facts? If altruistic
behavior is instinctive, is it good in a
moral sense, is it genuine moral
altruism?
- Moral altruism: disinterested giving to
others because it is right.

B/ The naturalistic fallacy

There is something misguided from the very beginning
about wondering whether human nature is egoist or
altruistic, or both, because is does not logically
imply ought.
This is the naturalistic fallacy: infering evaluative
conclusions without at least one evaluative premise.
Man is egoist (psychological egoism) does not imply
man ought to be egoist (moral egoism).
Man is altruist (psychological egoism) does not imply
man ought to be altruist (moral altruism).
What is then specifically moral? If morality relies on
nature, how can there be any moral progress, if the
only argument for cooperation is the social contract
argument, how can we make sense then of civil
disobedience, of a violation of the social contract
which nonetheless is fair, is right, is good?

C/ Kolhbergs theory
Heinzs dilemma
A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer.
There was one drug that the doctors thought might save
her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same
town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to
make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the
drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium
and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick
woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to
borrow the money, but he could only get together about
$1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist
that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or
let him pay later. But the druggist said: No, I discovered
the drug and I'm going to make money from it. So Heinz
got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the
drug for his wife.
Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to
steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not?

C/ Kolhbergs theory of moral

development

The Heinz dilemma shows that there are

crucial features of our moral reasoning
which enable us to adequately handle
dilemmas in which there is a universal
consensus about the right thing to do, but
not about what makes it right.
Kohlberg states that we begin life with an
egocentric point of view which may or may
not reach superior moral stages which
entail an increasingly genuine altruistic or
other-regarding moral perspective.

C/ Kolhbergs theory
Level A - Preconventional

Stage 1: The stage of punishment and

obedience. Ones only reason for doing what
is right is to avoid punishment. Others are
irrelevant to one except insofar as they have
an influence upon ones well-being.
Stage 2: The stage of individual
instrumental purpose and exchange. One
pursues his own interests while
acknowledging that others have interests,
and it is deemed right far all individuals to
pursue them. Ones only reason to do what is
right is to advance ones own interests.
Conflicts are to be resolved through
instrumental exchange of services.

C/ Kolhbergs theory
Level B - Conventional

Stage 3: The stage of mutual

expectations, relationships and
conformity. The expectations of others
become important, one is able to put
oneself into the others position. Doing
what is right means living up to the
expectations of those who are close to one.
Stage 4: The stage of social system and
conscience maintenance. One is loyal to
ones social institutions. Doing what is right
means fulfilling ones institutional duties
and obligations. One does what is right in
order to maintain ones institutions.

C/ Kolhbergs theory
Level C Postconventional, principled level

Stage 5: The stage of prior rights and social

contract. There are values and rights (life and
liberty) which do not owe their importance to social
institutions but must be upheld in any society. Doing
what is right means acting in accordance with the
values of ones society because as a rational
creature one is obligated to abide by the precepts
widely accepted and impartially adhered to.
Stage 6: The stage of universal ethical
principles. There are universal ethical principles
that all should follow, and which take priority over all
legal and other institutional obligations. Doing what
is right is acting in accordance with these principles.
One does what is right because as a rational
creature one grasps the validity of these principles
and is committed to following them.

C/ Kolhbergs theory of moral

development

Stage 1: Heteronomy.
Stage 2: Individualism.
Stage 3: Interpersonal expectations.
Stage 4: Social system and
conscience.
Stage 5: Social contract.
Stage 6: Universal ethical principles.