KEMAGNETAN

Dipoles
A magnetic
An
electric dipole
dipoleisiscomposed
composedof
of22electric
magnetic
charges,
charges
1 positive
or poles,
and1 1north
negative.
pole and
1 south pole.
Atoms can exhibit magnetic
properties that sometimes
mimic this simple bar magnet
behavior.

N
S

E
B

This gives bulk materials

magnetic behavior.

The magnetic
electric field
field
of of
the
the
electric
magnetic
dipole
dipole
looks
looks
like this.
identical to the electric dipole.

Magnetic Materials
Magnetic materials are formed by collecting a large number of atoms that display this
inherent magnetism.
A bulk piece of a magnetic material

Its
Replace
constituent
the bar
magnetic
magnets
atoms
with
dipole
(viewed
vectors
as bar magnets)

In this example, all the dipoles are aligned (perhaps by an external magnetic
field). In the more general case, the dipoles may be all randomly oriented.
These magnetic dipoles (at the atomic level) are represented by i. Since these
are vector quantities, the total magnetic moment total is found by a vector sum of
the individual atomic magnetic moments.

Magnetic Materials
The total magnetization of a material is defined as the magnetic dipole density in a
total
material

The total magnetic field in

with
a material

an external field B0 is given by

B B0 0 M

The magnetic field intensity in the

presence of a magnetic material is given by

B0

H
M
0

The magnetic permeability of a material is given by

Km 0

where Km is the relative permeability. The magnetic susceptibility of the material is

given by

m Km 1

M mH
In a linear material, we have

For paramagnetic & diamagnetic materials, Km ~ 1. Ferromagnetic materials have

very large Km values. For non-magnetic materials, Km = 1 and m = 0.

Recall the variety of magnetic behaviors that materials & films may exhibit.
1. Diamagnetic--these materials have magnetic susceptibilities that oppose the
application of an external B field. This can be viewed as the opposition of e in
their orbitals to the varying Bext as required by Lenzs Law.
Diamagnetic materials have negative susceptibilities.
All materials are inherently diamagnetic to some degree, but other behavior may
dominate. Conductors are strongly diamagnetic in the presence of alternating
fields. Superconductors, lacking electrical resistance to current flow, are perfectly
diamagnetic and expel external B fields from their interiors.
Material
m (105)

Bismuth
Mercury
Silver
Carbon (diamond)
Carbon (graphite)
Lead
Sodium chloride
Copper
Water

16.6 (1.66 104)

2.9
2.6
2.1
1.6
1.8
1.4
1.0
0.91

2. Paramagnetic--when an external field is applied, these materials are magnetized

in the same direction as B. This can be caused by e laying outside closed
shells. They exhibit a magnetization that is directly proportional to the applied B
field. These materials obey Curies Law

B, T C

where C is the Curie constant for the material & T is the absolute temperature.

Material

m (105)

Iron oxide (FeO)

Iron amonium alum
Uranium
Platinum
Tungsten
Cesium
Aluminum
Lithium
Magnesium
Sodium
Oxygen gas

720
66
40
26
6.8
5.1
2.2
1.4
1.2
0.72
0.19

The Curie Law for paramagnetic materials

As the T is lowered, the susceptibility increases inversely with T.

T ~

(T)

T (K)

C
T

3. Ferromagnetic--some materials exhibit large ( >>1) in which long-range order

causes unpaired e to line up inside macroscopic regions called domains.
In zero external B, the domains may be randomly oriented with respect to each
other. In an external B, the domains will begin to align with each other.
The material will also display hysteretic effects. For ferromagnets, the
susceptibility follows the Curie-Weiss Law above Tc.

B, T

C
T TC

For T > Tc, the material is paramagnetic. For T < Tc, it is ferromagnetic.
Material
Tc (K)
Fe
Co
Ni
Gd
Dy
Cu2MnAl
Fe2B
MnB

1043
1388
627
293
85
630
1015
578

The Curie-Weiss Law for ferromagnetic materials

As the T is lowered, the susceptibility increases inversely with T. There is a

critical temperature at Tc for the onset of ferromagnetic behavior. The FM is
the low temperature phase while the high temperature phase is PM.
ferro

para

(T)
Curie-Weiss
complex
hysteretic
behavior

Tc

T (K)

Hysteresis, Remanence, & Coercivity of Ferromagnetic

Materials

remanent magnetization = M0
coercivity = Hc

hard ferromagnetic material

has a large M0 and large Hc.

soft ferromagnetic material

has both a small M0 and Hc.

Coercivities & Remanence of Various Materials

Material

Hc (T)

M0 (T)

(BB0/0)max (kJ/m3)

BaFe12O19

0.36

0.36

25

Alnico IV

0.07

0.6

10.3

Alnico V

0.07

1.35

55

Alcomax I

0.05

1.2

27.8

MnBi

0.37

0.48

44

Ce(CuCo)5

0.45

0.7

92

SmCo5

1.0

0.83

160

Sm2Co17

0.6

1.15

215

Nd2Fe14B

1.2

1.2

260

(This is a quality factor for

permanent magnets. The
higher it is, the greater the
flux that can be obtained pe
unit volume of magnet.)

Magnetoresistance
Magnetoresistance is the variation of a materials (or films) electrical resistance with
the applied B field. The resistance can increase or decrease, typically by a few
percent for ordinary materials.
In a semiconductor with a single carrier type, the MR is proportional to (1 + (B)2)
where is the carrier mobility (m2/V-sec).
The Giant Magnetoresistance Effect (GMR) is a quantum mechanical effect
observed in thin film structures composed of alternating ferromagnetic and
nonmagnetic metal layers. The variation can be large.
In zero field the magnetization of adjacent ferromagnetic layers are antiparallel due
to a weak anti-ferromagnetic coupling between layers. This gives rise to a zero-field
resistivity.
When a field is applied to the film, a lower resistance appears when the
magnetization of the adjacent layers align. The spin of the electrons of the
nonmagnetic metal align parallel or antiparallel with an applied magnetic field in
equal numbers. These suffer less magnetic scattering when the M of the
ferromagnetic layers are parallel.

An example of GMR in Fe/Cr layers. Note how the effect increases as the film
thicknesses are varied.

Fe (FM)
Cr
Fe (FM)

t (nm)

Colossal Magnetoresistance
Colossal magnetoresistance (CMR) is a property of some materials, mostly
manganese-based perovskite oxides, that enables them to dramatically change their
electrical resistance in the presence of a magnetic field. The resistivity can change
by orders of magnitude. There is no theory to explain this so far.

Magnetostriction of Ferromagnetic Materials

Magnetostriction is the change in any dimension (expansion or contraction) of a
ferromagnetic material caused by a change in the magnetic field threading it.

The magnetostriction coefficient is given

as the fractional change in size when M
goes from zero to saturation.

L
L

If the object gets larger with B, then > 0;

if it gets smaller then < 0.

Magnetostriction of Ferromagnetic Materials

saturation
material

crystal axis

magnetostriction
(x 10-5)

Fe
Fe
Fe
Ni
Ni
Ni
Co

100
111
polycrystal
100
111
polycrystal
polycrystal

+(1.1-2.0)
-(1.3-2.0)
-0.8
-(5.0-5.2)
-2.7
-(2.5-4.7)
-(5.0-6.0)

A common observation of magnetostriction occurs with transformers or fluorescent

light ballasts. The noise they may make (a humming sound) happens at 120 Hz
since the iron material associated with the transformer core responds to the 60 Hz
alternating magnetic field impressed on it (maximum expansion/contraction occurs
twice per 60 Hz cycle).
Magnetostriction is used to create mechanical or vibratory motion in devices. It can
also be used to generate ultrasonic waves.)

Magnetic Measurements-Vibrating Sample Magnetometer

The vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM) is a basic instrument to determine
magnetic properties of a sample. It is (perhaps) the most widely used
magnetometer today. It offers the best combination of capabilities and can handle
samples with a wide variety of properties.
vibration unit

sample

The VSM uses a DC magnetic field

provided by an electromagnet, a
vibration mechanism to move
(oscillate) the sample in the Bdc, and
detector coils to detect and measure
the AC response of the sample.
VSMs can be built operate over a T
range from 2.0 to 1050 K

detection coils

magnet

If higher fields are needed (> 3 T),

more advanced systems may use a
superconducting magnet (a
solenoid).
Powders, bulk and thin films can be
measured.

VSM Operation Principle:

If a sample of any material is placed in a uniform magnetic field, created between the
poles of a electromagnet, a dipole moment will be induced.
If the sample vibrates with sinusoidal motion a sinusoidal electrical signal can be
induced in suitable placed pick-up coils.
The signal has the same frequency of vibration and its amplitude will be proportional
to the magnetic moment, amplitude, and relative position with respect to the pick-up
coils system.
magnetic
sample

sample
oscillation

external DC B0

detector
coils

Vibrating Sample Magnetometer

The system is computer-controlled. The applied B field may be operated using
current control (to the magnet) or field control, either in a feedback mode.
Field control is preferred since the magnet may exhibit hysteresis, giving a
complicated field-current relationship.
The field feedback must be low noise to get the required field resolution, ~ 0.001 Oe.
This level is required for magnetoresistive materials or films with coercivities < 1 Oe.
The VSM allows the sample magnetic moment to be measured while the external
field is varied. There are two possible methods:
1. Measurement during sweeping of the B field; this method has difficulty from the M
lagging behind the B field during the sweep; field error ~ sweep rate x time
constant.
2. Measurement after stepping the B field to a new value; this measures the
equilibrium value of M by waiting for the time constant.
Comparison:
Max field 30 kOe
3
300 Oe
30

B sweep field overshoot

150 Oe
15
1.5
0.15

stepped B overshoot
1 Oe
0.1
0.01
0.01

Signal Detection and Processing

The sample vibrates along the Z axis perpendicular to the magnetizing field.
This induces a signal in the pick-up coil system that is fed to a differential amplifier.
The output of the differential amplifier is subsequently fed into a tuned amplifier and
an internal lock-in amplifier that receives a reference signal supplied by the oscillator.
The output of this lock-in amplifier is a DC signal proportional to the magnetic
moment of the sample being studied.

Ni M(H) versus H at RT (VSM meas)

VSM Sensitivity
The voltage V across the VSM detection coils can be written as
V = MAFS
where

M = sample magnetic moment

A = vibration amplitude of sample
F = vibration frequency
S = sensitivity function of the detection coils

Magnetic moment: selection of the sample volume can be used to optimize

signal; in general, larger is better; size may affect B uniformity & vibration load.
Vibration amplitude: large amplitude increases sensitivity (if coils are large
enough to capture full excursion with uniform sensitivity).
Vibration frequency: higher freq gives higher sensitivity, but other constraints
limit max usable freq (eddy currents in conducting samples, audio noise due to
vibrator, interference from harmonics/subharmonics of power freq).
Detection coil sensitivity: coupling of detector is strong function of (inverse)
separation between sample & coils; small separation makes sample mounting &
shape issues more important.

VSM Sensitivity & Noise

The main sources of noise to limit VSM sensitivity comes from background signals
and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).

A. Background signals
These can include vibration of the detector coils due to mechanical coupling from
the sample vibrator (need to insure vibration isolation here). Also stray signals can
come from wire loops or drive wires leading to the vibrator (independent of B and
present without a sample). Also pickup from other power sources (electrical &
mechanical vibrations).

B. Noise in VSM
The main sources of noise include the usual culprits (Johnson, Shot, and 1/f noise).
Johnson noise (thermal noise due to e fluctuations in R) is usually the most
significant in VSM. It is given by
VRMS = (4kTRf)1 / 2
where

k = Boltzmanns constant

T = absolute T

R = coil resistance

f = freq bandwidth of meas in Hz