SEAKEEPING

Introduction (8.1)

Seaworthiness
defines the
operational
limits of our
vessels!

USCG 47 MLB

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Introduction (8.1)

The ship is a system excited by external

moments and forces.
EXCITATION
EXCITATION
- WAVES
- WIND

SHIP RAOs

RESPONSE
- MOTION
- STRUCTURAL
LOADS

Excitations (inputs) are primarily wind and

waves.
RAO : response amplitude operator
Responses (output) are motions in the six
degrees of freedom, plus structural loading.

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Introduction (8.1)

Ship response depends on two things:

1. Size, direction, and frequency of the
inputs.
2. The seakeeping and structural
characteristics of the ship.

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Waves (8.2)

Wind and waves are both important but our study

is limited to wave systems as this is the dominant
input load.
Waves are created by energy supplied to water
(from wind, ships bow, etc.).
Wave energy is related to wave height by:
W a v e E n e rg y f ( W a v e H e ig h t )2

The damage included bending the foremast

20 degrees and busting windows on the
bridge! Taken off South Carolina in 1998.

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How Waves Are Made (8.2)

Forces that make waves:
Wind: Most common. Energy transfer through
shear stresses.
Geological Events: Seismic activity on the sea
bed (i.e. underwater volcanoes, landslides and
earthquakes). Tsunamis
Currents: Interaction of ocean currents.
Greatly influenced by the coastlines shape.

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Wind Generated Wave Systems

Factors for Wave Size (8.2)
Wind Strength: Faster wind = more energy
transferred. Strong winds form large waves.
Wind Duration: Longer = larger waves.
Water Depth: Different relationships for deep and
shallow water.
Fetch: Area influenced by wind.
Larger area = more energy transfer.

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The Simplified
Wave Equation
for coastal
waters!
This wont be on
the exam!

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Waves (8.2)

Energy transfer is constantly occurring in a wave.

Water viscosity dissipates wave energy by
viscous friction. Dissipation increases with
wave height.
To maintain the wave height, the energy lost to
friction must be replaced.

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Wave Life Cycle (8.2)

Birth - wind over water creates ripples;
high frequency (f), low wave length ().
Wind Energy > Wave Energy Dissipation

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Wave Life Cycle (8.2)

Growing - f but as wind continues and
energy content of wave system
grows.

Wind Energy > Wave Energy Dissipation

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Wave Life Cycle (8.2)

Fully Developed - sea stops growing with wave
height and energy content maximized.

Wind Energy Wave Energy Dissipation

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Wave Life Cycle (8.2)

Reducing - wave system no longer maintained as
winds reduce. Waves dissipate (from high to
lower freqs) as energy content drops.
Swell - Eventually the wave system consists of
low freq, long waves associated with an
ocean swell.

Wind Energy < Wave Energy Dissipation

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Wave Superposition (8.2)

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Wave Superposition (8.2)

Confused seas are modeled as a
destructive/constructive interference pattern.
The wave systems are modeled by superimposing
sinusoidal wave components, each with their
own wavelength, speed, and amplitude.
Bottom Line: We must look at spectral densities
and statistical analysis methods to determine wave
system and sea properties.

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Wave Superposition (8.2)

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Waves (8.2)

Wave Spectrum: analyzing the sea in the

frequency domain.

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Waves (8.2)

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Waves (8.2)

Modal wave periods from the Sea Spectra

Chart are easily converted to modal (or
circular) wave frequencies by the following
relationship:

Dont
confuse
this with
linear
frequency,
f=1/T!

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Waves (8.2)

Each sea state has a predominant modal

frequency and significant wave height.
Direction of the seas is assumed to be the
same as local, observed wind.
So, we now know the magnitude, direction,
and frequency of the Excitation Forces!

The next step is understanding the

ship motions...

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Simple Harmonic Motion (8.3)

A harmonic motion is a system where a mass
displaced from its at rest location
experiences a linear restoring force
resulting in an oscillating motion.
Linear - size of force or moment is
proportional to displacement. Non-linear
restoring forces work, too.
Restoring - force or moment opposes the
direction of motion.

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Simple Harmonic Motion (8.3)

Common Model:

Mass is displaced, the spring is either in compression

or tension with a restoring force trying to return it to
the original location.

The size of the force will be proportional to the amount

of displacement - a linear force. (F=kx)

Motion will continue indefinitely if no damping is in

the system.

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Simple Harmonic Motion (8.3)

The mathematics involves analysis of a 2nd order linear
differential equation of motion with displacement (z)
and time (t) and damping effects =0:

the solution is a simple cosine.

where Z0 is the initial displacement and n is the natural

(circular) frequency of the system.

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Simple Harmonic Motion (8.3)

A plot of the displacement (z) against time (t):

The period (T) can be determined from the plot.

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Simple Harmonic Motion (8.3)

From the period the natural frequency can be
calculated and checked against the observed
natural frequency calculated from the known
system parameters, mass (m) and spring
constant (k).

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Simple Harmonic Motion (8.3)

Amplitude of spring, mass, damper system may
reduce with time due to damping or dissipation
effects.
Three conditions:
Under damped: continued oscillations.
Critically damped: one overshoot.
Over damped: no oscillations, slow recovery.

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Simple Harmonic Motion (8.3)

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Simple Harmonic Motion (8.3)

Forcing Function and Resonance
For spring- mass-damper system to remain
oscillating, energy must be put into system (if
damping 0).
This energy is required to overcome the
energy being dissipated by the damper. In this
system it would be applied as an external
force, often called an external forcing function.

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Simple Harmonic Motion (8.3)

To create maximum displacement, the forcing
function has to inject its energy to coincide
with the movement of the mass (i.e. be in
phase).
So to maintain system oscillation, a cyclical force
is required that is at the same frequency as the
SHM system.
When this occurs, the system is at resonance and
maximum amplitude oscillations will occur. If
the forcing function is applied at any other
frequency, the amplitude of oscillation is

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Simple Harmonic Motion (8.3)

The differential equation for the mass, spring, damper
system with forcing function becomes:

where F is the size of the forcing function and is the

frequency at which it is applied.
The solution becomes (still neglecting damping):

F
K

1
Cos t
2
1 ( )
n

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Simple Harmonic Motion (8.3)

When << n

Z = F/K

When >> n

Z=0

When = n

F = forcing function
K = spring rate
Z F
K

Z=

1
1 (

2
)
n

Cos t

System motion amplitude versus the forcing function

Amplitude
frequency.

Frequency

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Simple Harmonic Motion (8.3)

The figure below compares a system that is sharply tuned
and one that is not.

Lightly damped systems are more sharply tuned and are

more sensitive to forcing function frequency than
those with high damping. Ships are often sharply
tuned in some motions...

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Ship Response (8.4)

As we saw in 8.1, the system output
depends on the magnitude and frequency
of the excitation force and the ships
RAOs.
Excitation force frequency depends on the
wave frequency (from sea state table) and
ship speed and heading.
Z F
K
Recall

1
1 (

2
)
n

Cos t

=input freq. (Vs=0)

e=encounter freq.
(Vs>0) then = e

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Ship Response (8.4)

Encounter frequency ( e) accounts for the
relative velocity between ship and waves.

Where:
w is the wave frequency
V is the ship speed in ft/s.
is the heading of the ship relative to the
direction the waves are moving.

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Ship Response (8.4)

For a given wave frequency ( w), changing
course or speed alters e. (Example?)

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Ship Response (8.4)

Knowing encounter frequency, we can predict
ship responses.
The 3 major sets of response can be grouped as:
1. Rigid Body Motions.
2. Structural Responses.
3. Non-oscillatory Dynamic Responses.

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Ship Response (8.4)

A ship has 6 degrees of freedom about the
xyz axis system, 3 rotational and 3
translational. All are rigid body motions.

P itc h
Y aw
R o ll

H eave

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Rigid Body Motions (8.4)

Heave (Z axis translation)
Imbalance between displacement and the
buoyant force creates a resultant force which
attempts to restore the ship to its original
waterline.
F
F
=F

Zero R esultant Force

Resultant
Force

G
B

DWL

B
Resultant
Force

CL

CL

CL

DWL

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Rigid Body Motions - Heave (8.4)

The vertical motion is completely analogous to
the mass-spring-damper system.

Spring Constant (k) TPI

Mass (M)

It is possible to predict the natural heave

frequency ( heave) of a ship.

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Rigid Body Motions - Heave (8.4)

TPI depends heavily on area of the DWL.

Larger waterplane area for a given displacement

equals greater restoring forces.
Beamy ships (e.g. tugs) will have short period
oscillations and high accelerations (less
comfortable).

Heave is heavily damped.

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Rigid Body Motions - Roll (8.4)

External wave slopes create internal
righting moments to realign B and G.
Rotation is about the X axis.

Roll

Remember Chapter 4?!

G

FB

FB

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Rigid Body Motions - Roll (8.4)

Righting moment depends on righting arm and
ship displacement.

Righting Moment GZ
For small angles (in radians) this becomes:

Righting Moment GMT

This creates a linear restoring moment which is a
rotational SHM.

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Rigid Body Motions - Roll (8.4)

By rotational analogy to the mass-spring- damper
system.
Spring Constant (k) GMT

Mass (M) Ixx

Similarly, the expression for the natural roll

frequency ( roll).

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Rigid Body Motions - Roll (8.4)

Combining empirical knowledge and the relationship
between natural roll frequency ( roll) and period of
roll Troll.

r o ll

C B

G M

where B is the ships Beam

C is a constant whose value can range from 0.35 - 0.55
s/ft when GMT and beam are measured in ft. (0.44
when damping unknown)

What happens if B is increased?

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Rigid Body Motions - Roll (8.4)

GM=f(B3)!, so T=f(1/B0.5)
Accelerations are higher and F=ma
Typical of B/L ratios >~0.3
Righting
Arm

Curve - Large GM T
Stiff GZ

Tender GZ Curve - Small GM T

Angle of Keel

Too much GM is uncomfortable and ...

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Rigid Body Motions - Roll (8.4)

GMT value is a compromise between good
seakeeping (small GMT) and good
stability (large GMT).
Naval Architects design for a GMT of
between 5 -8% of beam as a compromise.

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Rigid Body Motions - Pitch (8.4)

Pitch (about Y axis) wants to restore
vertical alignment of B and G.
G
B

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Rigid Body Motions - Pitch (8.4)

Internal righting moment acting to restore the ship
is linear and depends on MT1" value.
As in roll, rotational motion is analogous to the
mass- spring-damper system.

S p r in g C o n s t a n t ( k ) M T 1

M a ss (M ) Iyy

Large MT1" = large moments & accelerations

Motions heavily damped in all cases.

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Rigid Body Motions - Resonance (8.4)

Resonance - if freq of the forcing function = natural
freq of the system: then maximum amplitudes!
To minimize undesirable motions, resonance
must not occur.
Since heave, pitch, and roll are SHM, it is
important that they do not match with
encounter frequency ( e).

F
K

1
2
1 ( )
n

Cos t

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Rigid Body Motions - Resonance (8.4)

Pitch and heave are well damped and as such are
not sharply tuned (amplified).
Roll motion is sharply tuned, lightly damped, and
very susceptible to the encounter frequency.

Amplitude

heave

Frequency ( )
HEAVE

Amplitude

pitch

Frequency ( )
PITCH

roll

Amplitude

Frequency ( )
ROLL

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Ship Response - Structural (8.4)

Distinct from rigid body motion, waves can
negatively impact ship structural components.
Primary structural loads:
1. Longitudinal bending: hogging and sagging
2. Torsion: twisting effect upon the ship structure
3. Transverse stresses: hydrostatic pressure of the sea

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Ship Response (8.4)

Non-Oscillatory Dynamic Response
Caused by the relative motions of the
ship and sea.
Maximized when a movement of the ship
due to heave, pitch, or roll superimposed
with a wave peak or trough.

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Non-Oscillatory Dynamic Response (8.4)

Shipping Water - bow of the ship
submerged, considerable loads on the
ship structure.
Forefoot Emergence - bow unsupported,
severe structural loads.
Slamming - severe structural vibration from
forefoot emergence.
Racing - propeller leaves the water.

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Non-Oscillatory Dynamic Response (8.4)

Shipping
Water!

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Non-Oscillatory Dynamic Response (8.4)

Forefoot
emergence
and
slamming!

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Non-Oscillatory Dynamic Response (8.4)

Large following seas at speeds close to the
wave speed may cause undesirable
responses:
Broaching - sudden and uncontrollable
turning of a ship to a beam on
orientation with a risk of capsize.
Loss of Stability - ship surfs, can
adversely effect stability.

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Non-Oscillatory Dynamic Response (8.4)

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Ship Response Reduction (8.5)

Historically, seakeeping has been less important
than hull resistance, strength and space
efficiency considerations. (Heck, who cares
about the crews comfort?!)

DDG-51 hull form was the first to be created with

seakeeping as a high priority. (In order to
expand the mission envelope.)

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DDG 51 Hull Advantages (8.5)

The hull shape was designed to reduce
accelerations.
Forward and aft sections are V-shaped, giving
nonlinear MT1, reducing pitch accelerations.
Similarly, volume distributed higher (above DWL);
limits Awp and TPI, reducing heave accelerations.
Wider water plane forward and higher G reduces
the stiffness of the GZ curve giving reduced
roll accelerations.

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Ship Response Reduction (8.5)

Recall pitch and heave are well damped but roll
motion is sharply tuned, lightly damped, and
very susceptible to the encounter frequency.

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Ship Response Reduction (8.5)

Anti-Roll Devices are used to damp roll

motion more effectively.

Two categories of Anti-Roll Devices
Passive- no external input required
Active- require some kind of power or control
system

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Passive Anti-Roll Devices (8.5)

Bilge Keel - very common, reduces roll up

to 35 %.
Tank Stabilizers - throttled fluid flow
across a transverse tank.
Others - tried w/o much success such as
delayed swinging pendulums, shifting
weights, and large gyroscopes.

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Active Anti-Roll Devices (8.5)

Fin Stabilizers - common systems found on

many ships, use control hydraulics to

move fin.

Others - again with only limited success

such as pumping tanks and moving
weights with hydraulics.

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Passive and Active System Effects (8.5)

Resonance can still occur, however roll
amplitude at resonance is reduced.

Anti-roll devices have little impact on the

motions of heave and pitch (which are
heavily damped anyway).

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Ship Response Reduction (8.5)

Responses are significantly influenced by the
encounter frequency.
1
2

e
Recall, 1
n

If e is near any n , angular and vertical

accelerations may cause severe negative
consequences!
Altering course and/or speed may be the easiest
solution!

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Ship Response Reduction (8.5)

A seaworthy design is only as good as the crew,

and you only appreciate the design when you need it!