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Lecture 1:
Introduction to Chemistry
Chemistry - SPRING 2015

Course lecturer :
Jasmin utkovi
4th March 2015

Grading criteria
Quizzes ( 2 x 7.5% )

15%

Midterm exam

25%

Tutorial / Homework
assignments

15%

Attendance

5%

Final exam
Total

40%
100%

Link for the book:

https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B1lV-EMiZm99OUFEe
ExHOERCLWs/edit

Contents

International University of Sarajevo

1. Chemistry in modern world

1.1 Scientific method
2. What is MATTER?
3. Brief History of Chemistry
3.1 Atomic theory of matter
3.2 Law of multiple proportions
3.3 Avogadros Hypothesis
4. The ATOM
4.1 The electrons
4.2 Radioactivity
5. Periodic system of elements

1. Chemistry in the modern World

International University of Sarajevo

Why we study Chemistry ?:

Chemistry is the study of properties of substances and how they
react with one another .

It is an experimental science based of the scientific method!

Hunderds of materials that we use EVERY DAY , directly and
indirectly, are the products of chemical reseacrh.

For example: Plastics , Computer Chips, paper, fuels, cement,

ceramics, sollar cells, Cosmetics and so on.........

WE NEED CHEMISTRY TO UNDERSTAND OUR

ENVIRONMENT!!

Important chemistry processess

in our life !
Digestion..
Cooking..
When you write with ink on paper..!
Steel is 94% iron and 6% carbon. The carbon forms complex bonds making
steel so strong that you can bend an iron crowbar, but not a steel one.

ANYTHING that burns is undergoing a chemical reaction and almost always

creates some form of carbon as waste.

Figure1. Chemistry in every day life

1.1 Scientific method

Scientists (Chemists) increase expend their knowledge through
the process of making observations, using SCIENTIFIC METHODS
through laboratory experiments, to answer scientific questions .

We first define the GOAL (formulate the question we wish to

answer).

After the goal we collect data about the problem . We use two types
of data :
Qualitative data consists of descriptive observation
Quantitative data consists of numbers obtained from
measurements .

Scientific method cont

If we gather enough data about our subject we will be able to form a
HYPOTHESIS.
Hypothesis is a proposed explanation for an observation,
phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further
investigation!

To test the hypothesis we perform EXPERIMENTS .If the

experiments support the hypothesis we will perform
another experiments(under various conditions) to verify
our statement.
After many confirmed experiments( the results are
reproducible) we can state a LAW or Scientific law .

A law simply says what happens but doesn't explain it (why this
happens).

Scientific method cont.

Once a Law has been
formulated, scientist try to
develop a THEORY (unifying
principle) that explains the law
based on experimental
methods( why nature behaved
as it does ).

The theory can develop by time

because new facts may arise.

Figure 2.The scientific method

2. What is Matter ?
Matter is anything that occupies space and possesses
MASS.
People, Gold, Smoke, Smog and so on..
NOT MATTER : light and sound!
Many people mix-up MASS and Weight .

Object MASS is not its WEIGHT !!!

MASS is a measurement of the amount of matter something
contains, while WEIGHT is the measurement of the pull of gravity on
an object.
Matter does not depend on the location of an object but Weight does !!!
Example: On the Moon, your MASS will be the same, but your WEIGHT will be
different since the Moon doesn't have the same gravity as the Earth.

States of Matter ?
Under normal conditions there are three distinct states of
matter :
1.
2.
3.

Solids rigid and fixes shape

Liquids fixed volumes and take the shape of their containers
Gases have neither fixed shape nor fixed volume and fill their
container completely
Figure 3. Example of states of matter

Pure Substances and

Mixtures
Pure Chemical Substance any matter that has a

fixed chemical composition and characteristic properties

Mixture combinations of two or more pure

substances in variable proportions in which the individual

substances retain their identity
1. Homogeneous mixtures
a. All portions of a material are in the same state, have no
visible boundaries
b. Also called SOLUTIONS

2. Heterogeneous mixtures
a. Composition of a material is not completely uniform

The simplest substances are

Most mixtures can be separated into pure substances - Elements or
Compounds.

ELEMENTS is any substance that CANNOT be broken down into

simpler substances .
Many definition of Elements exists but the modern one is :
An element is a substance that consists only of atoms with the same nuclear
charge .
99.99% of all substances are made of only 40 elements .

COUMPOUNDS are substances that can be broken into two or

more elements.

Properties of Matter
Properties used to describe material substances can be
classified as either physical or chemical.

Physical properties:
Characteristics that scientists can measure without
changing the composition of the sample under study
(mass, color, volume, amount of space occupied by the
sample).

Chemical properties:
Describe the characteristic ability of a substance to react
to form new substances (flammability and corrosion).

Properties of Matter cont

Physical properties can be extensive or intensive
1. Extensive properties
a. Vary with the amount of the substance,
b. Include mass, weight, and volume.
2. Intensive properties
a. Do not depend on the amount of the substance,
b. Include color, melting and boiling point, electrical
conductivity, and physical state at a given temperature,
c. Determine a substances identity,
d. Have an important intensive property called density (d), a
ratio of two extensive properties, mass and volume
density = mass / volume

d = m/V (g/cm3)

3. Brief History of Chemistry

In fourth century B.C., ancient Greeks proposed that matter
consisted of fundamental particles called ATOMS.

Over the next two millennia, major advances in chemistry were

achieved by alchemists. Their major goal was to convert certain

elements into others by a process called transmutation.
MODERN CHEMISTRY

Beginnings in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, where great

advances were made in metallurgy, the extraction of metals from

ores.
In the seventeenth century, Boyle described the relationship
between the pressure and volume of air and defined an element as a
substance that cannot be broken down into two or more simpler
substances by chemical means.

Modern Chemistry cont.

In the 18th century Priestley discovered oxygen

gas and the process of combustion
Father of modern chemistry -- Lavoisier
discovered respiration and wrote the first
modern chemistry text.

His famous law says that the mass is always conserved during
the chemical reaction the mass of the products equals
the mass of the reactants.

3.1 Atomic theory of matter

In 1803, Dalton proposed that elements consist of
individual particles called atoms.

His atomic theory of matter contains four hypotheses:

1. All matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of an element are identical in mass and fundamental
chemical properties.
3. A chemical compound is a substance that always contains the
same atoms in the same ratio.
4. In chemical reactions, atoms from one or more compounds or
elements redistribute or rearrange in relation to other atoms
to
form one or more new compounds.

Atoms themselves do not undergo a change of identity in

chemical reactions.

Atomic theory of matter cont..

Daltons atomic theory is essentially correct, with four
minor modifications:

1. Not all atoms of an element must have precisely the

same mass
2. Atoms of one element can be transformed into
another through nuclear reactions.
3. The composition of many solid compounds are
somewhat variable
4. Under certain circumstances, some atoms can be
divided (split into smaller particles).

3.2 Law of multiple proportions

Dalton could not use his theory to determine the

elemental compositions of chemical compounds because
he had no reliable scale of atomic masses.

Daltons data led to a general statement known as the

law of multiple proportions.
If two elements form more than one compound
between them, then the ratios of the masses of the
second element which combine with a fixed mass of
the first element, will be ratios of small whole
numbers!

3.3 Avogadro's hypothesis

Gay-Lussac attempted to establish the formulas of chemical

compounds by measuring volumes of gases under constant

temperature and pressure conditions, that react to make a chemical
compound.
Exp: One volume of chlorine gas always reacted with 1 volume of
hydrogen gas (HCl) or 1 volume of oxygen gas always reacted with two
volume of hydrogen gas (H2O).

Gay-Lussacs results were explained by Avogadros hypothesis,

which proposed that equal volumes of different gases contain equal

numbers of gas particles when measured at the same temperature
and pressure.

Figure 4. Gay Lussacs eexperiments with chlorine gas

and hydrogen

4. The ATOM
Each element is chemically unique. To understand why they are
unique, you need to know the structure of the atom (the smallest
particle of an element) and the characteristics of its components.

Atoms consist of electrons, protons, and neutrons.

1. Electrons and protons have electrical charges that are identical
in magnitude but opposite in sign. Relative charges of 1 and
+1
are assigned to the electron and proton, respectively.
2. Neutrons have approximately the same mass as protons but no
chargethey are electrically neutral.
3. The mass of a proton or a neutron is about 1836 times greater
than the mass of an electron. Protons and neutrons constitute the
bulk of the mass of the atom.

4.1 Electrons
In 1897, Thomson demonstrated that cathode rays could be

deflected, or bent, by magnetic or electric fields, which indicated that

the cathode rays consisted of charged particles.

Measuring the extent of the deflection of the cathode rays, Thomson

calculated the mass-to-charge ratio of the particles.

Since like charges repel each other and opposite charges attract,
Thomson concluded that the particles had a net negative charge.
These particles are called electrons.

4.2 Radioactivity
In 1896, Hanry Becquerel discovered that certain minerals emitted
a new form of energy.

Becquerels work was extended by Pierre and Marie Curie, who

used the word radioactivity to describe the emission of energy rays

by matter.

Ernest Rutherford, building on the Curies work, showed that

compounds of elements emitted at least two distinct types of

radiation. These particles were called particles. Particles in the
second type of radiation were called particles and had the same
charge and mass-to-charge ratio as electrons.

A third type of radiation, rays, was discovered later and found to be

similar to a lower energy form of radiation called X -rays.

Radioactivity cont

So we have four kinds of radiation :

particles, particles and x and rays (gamma)
Distinguished by the way they are deflected by an electric field and by the
degree to which they penetrate matter ( ionizing radiation)

particles and

particles are deflected in opposite directions.

Most rays can not go through (penetrate) the human skin and they are
ejected by He (Helium) nucleus .
particles are actually ejected by electrons and if high radiation exist it may
penetrate through the skin and damage it.

rays have no charge and are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields.
particles have the lowest penetrating power, and rays are able to
penetrate matter readily.

X rays are like gamma rays (Y rays). X rays and Y rays are very energetic
and dangerous to humans .

The Atomic model

Rutherfords results strongly suggested that both the mass and

positive charge are concentrated in a tiny fraction of the volume of

the atom, called the nucleus.

Rutherford established that the nucleus of the hydrogen atom was a

positively charged particle, which he called a proton.

Also suggested that the nuclei of elements other than hydrogen must
contain electrically neutral particles with the same mass as the
proton.

The neutron was discovered in 1932 by Rutherfords student

Chadwick.

Because of Rutherfords work, it became clear that an particle

contains two protons and neutronsthe

5. Periodic system of elements

Periodic system of elements cont..

The single most important learning aid in chemistry!!!
Summarizes huge amounts of information about the elements so

that you can predict many of their properties and chemical reactions.
Elements are arranged in seven horizontal rows, in order of increasing atomic
number from left to right and from top to bottom.
Rows are called periods and are numbered from 1 to 7.
Elements with similar chemical properties form vertical columns, called groups,
which are numbered from 1 to 18.
Groups 1, 2, and 13 through 18 are the main group elements.
Groups 3 through 12 are in the middle of the periodic table and are the transition
elements.
The two rows of 14 elements at the bottom of the periodic are the lanthanides and
actinides.

Periodic system of elements

Elements with similar chemical behavior are in the same group.
Elements of Group 1 are alkali metals.
Elements of Group 2 are the alkaline earths.
Elements of Group 17 are the halogens.
Elements of Group 18 are the noble gases.

Guidelines for reading ..

Book chapter 1 (page 1- 60)

Book - Electronic format :
https://docs.google.com/file/d/0B1lVEMiZm99OUFEeExHOERCLWs/edit

Prepare yourself for tutorial (5th Mar.2015)

and revise UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
(starting page 55)..

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Thank You !
Prepared by Jasmin utkovi