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The Second World War

and its Impact

The Great European Nightmare

Diplomatic Triumphs and Failures

Treaty of Versailles did not create an enduring
peace by severely punishing Germany and
triggering future resentment against the "dictated
peace."
League of Nations, without (US & USSR) didn't
have will nor support to maintain peace.
Washington Naval Conference, 1921-22: did
not stop naval arms race
Five Power Treaty: created a 5-5-3 battleship
ratio between U.S., Britain and Japan (others left
out)

Diplomatic Triumphs and Failures

Locarno Pact, 1925: "spirit of Locarno" no
longer relevant once Hitler took power
Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928: "war is
illegal"; not enforceable
Japanese invasion of Manchuria, 1931:
League of Nations condemned, but did
little; Japan pulled out of League as a
result

Hitlers Foreign Policy

Hitler withdrew from League of Nations,

1933: secretly begins rearmament
Stresa Front, 1935: Mussolini and
others concerned Hitler withdrew from
Versailles Treaty

Italy, France, and Britain protested strongly,

understanding the danger; agreed to use force to
maintain status quo.
However only a year later, Mussolini allied with Hitler
to help fascists win in Spain

Remilitarization of the Rhineland

German reoccupation of the Rhineland,
1936: violated Versailles Treaty and
Locarno Pact
France unwilling to enforce the treaty
without British aid; British didn't want
another war.
Hitler knew of the allies desire to avoid
war at all costs; took advantage of this.

Italian Aggression in Ethiopia

Italian invasion of Ethiopia,
1935: League of Nations
ineffective in its actions and
protests.
Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie
appeals to League, who branded
Italy an aggressor state.
Embargo placed on Italy, but it did
not include oil, which Italy needed
to continue its invasion.
Conquest complete in May 1936.

Haile Selassie

Spanish Civil War, 1936

Mussolini and Hitler use conflict as a
testing ground for their military forces:
Italy's army; Germany's airforce -Luftwaffe
Fascism prevails under Francisco Franco
League ineffective in helping republicans
(Loyalists) against Franco.
Rome-Berlin Axis formed ("Fascintern"):
an alliance between fascist Italy and
Germany

The Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis

Oct. 1936, Germany and Italy signed
the Rome-Berlin Axis.
Anti-Comintern Pact, 1937: Italy
signed with Germany and Japan to
oppose communism
Japan invades China, 1937: world
watches the destruction of Chinese
cities like Shanghai and "Rape of
Nanking," but does little. Marks the
beginning of World War II in Asia.

Annexation of Austria
Anschluss: Germany
annexes Austria, 1938
Hitler bullies the Austrians
into accepting German
control of the nation.
Nazis in Austria put pressure
on the government.
German troops moved in on
March 13.
A plebiscite in April had a
majority of Austrians favor
the unification.

The Czechoslovakian Crisis

Sudetenland: Hitler demanded the
German-speaking province in
Czechoslovakia or else there would be
war
Munich Conference, 1938 arranged
by British Prime Minister Neville
Chamberlain
Attended by Britain, France, Italy &
Germany; Czechoslovakia and
Russia not invited!
British Prime Minister Neville
Chamberlain adopted a policy of
appeasement
Appeasement: making concessions to
an aggressor in order to achieve peace

The Czechoslovakian Crisis

Pacifism is prevalent in Britain
and France: memories of
horrors of WWI; large segments
of the populace don't want war
MunichAgreement:
Czechoslovakia forced to give
away Sudetenland
Chamberlain returns to Britain a
hero, boasting: "we have
secured peace in our time"
German invasion of
Czechoslovakia, spring1939:
Hitler double-crosses
Chamberlain

The Polish Crisis

Hitler makes demands on port city of
Danzig (Gdansk) in the Polish Corridor
Chamberlain says if Germany attacks
Poland there will be war
Hitler does not want a two-front war
against France & Britain in west and
Russia in east

The Polish Crisis

Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, Aug.
1939
World shocked that archenemies Hitler and
Stalin would make such an agreement
Hitler sought assurances USSR would not
attack Germany if Germany invaded Poland
Public agreement: nonaggression treaty
Private agreement: Germany and USSR
would invade Poland and split the country in
half.

The Outbreak of War

Germany invades
Poland, Sept. 1,
1939: marks
beginning of World
War II in Europe
September 3,
Britain & France
declare war on
Germany

Hitlers Conquests
Blitzkrieg ("lightning war"): new form of warfare
used by Germany to quickly defeat an enemy by
poking a hole in enemy line and cutting off front
lines from the rear thus surrounding enemy.
Used coordinated attack on one part of enemy
line with airforce, tanks, and artillery
Poland defeated in about a month; partition
occurred when USSR attacked from east.
Stalin invades Finland (1939) and annexes
Estonia, Latvia, & Lithuania (1940) to create a
buffer zone, believing Hitler will one day invade
Soviet Union

Hitlers Conquests
sitzkrieg (Phony War):
After Poland, a 7-month lull
ensued, causing some to
say WWII was a myth. The
world waited to see where
Hitler might strike next.
Spring 1940: Hitler invaded
Denmark, Sweden, Norway,
Netherlands, Belgium &
Luxembourg

The Fall of France

Fall of France, June 1940 occurred in less
than six weeks
Dunkirk: thousands of French and British
soldiers trapped on beaches of France
Before Germans came in for the kill,
thousands were rescued by armada of
British vessels
Vichy France: Hitler did not wish to waste
time subduing all of France
Puppet gov't created in southern France
Free French led by General Charles De
Gaulle, General Charles De Gaulle, who
fled to Britain.

DeGaulle

The Battle of Britain

Churchill

Battle of Britain: one of

most critical battles of the
war
Hitler sought to soften Britain
up for an invasion
("Operation Sealion")
Luftwaffe (led by Herman
Goering, one of Hitler's
inner circle) sent to destroy
Royal Air Force (RAF)
Winston Churchill emerged
as inspirational war leader of
Britain.

The Battle of Britain

After almost defeating RAF,
Hitler ordered bombing of
London: fatal error
RAF and their Spitfire fighters
recovered and ultimately
defeated Luftwaffe: Hitler forced
to call off invasion of Britain
Significance: Hitler had to guard
against a future two-front war;
(D-Day launched from Britain)

The Battle of the Atlantic

German U-Boats were
an effective weapon
against the British.
The British depended
upon their fleet and
their trade connections
to feed their people.
German U-Boats sank
thousands of allied
shipping in 1940-41.

War in North Africa

Rommel

Italy invaded British Egypt in Sept.

1940 and were repelled; the British
took control of Italys East Africa
possessions.
Hitler dispatched the Afrika Korps
under Field Marshal Erwin
Rommel, the Desert Fox to aid
the Italians.
The Germans renewed their
advance into Egypt, meeting
British General Bernard
Montgomery.

Invasion of the Soviet Union

German invasion of Soviet Union, Operation
Barbarossa, June 1941: Hitler's attempt at
"lebensraum"
"Scorched Earth": Soviets destroyed anything
of value as they withdrew to deprive German
army of resources; 1,000's of towns
disappeared!
By winter, Germans at the gates of Moscow; lay
siege to Leningrad in the North (lasted two
years) and Stalingrad in the south.
In Soviet Union, WWII became known as Great
Patriotic War of the Fatherland

The Holocaust
Holocaust resulted in deaths of
6 million Jews and 6 million
others
Hitler's "Final Solution" to the
Jewish problem
Formal plan came at Wanasee
Conference in 1942
Six death camps built in Poland
in addition to hundreds of
concentration camps.
Auschwitz was most notorious
camp.

Auschwitz

The Atlantic Charter

Churchill and FDR meet secretly after
invasion of Soviet Union
Decide once Axis Powers defeated, there
would be no territorial changes contrary to
the wishes inhabitants (selfdetermination)
Called for a permanent system of general
security: later became the United Nations
Stalin endorsed the agreement soon
thereafter

U.S. Neutrality
Neutrality Acts in 1930s prevented FDR
from drawing U.S. into the conflict earlier.
In general, a mood if isolationism
prevailed in the United States, leading the
U.S. to stay out of the conflict.
Lend-Lease Act (1941) gave large
amounts of money and supplies to help
Britain and Soviets; effectively ended U.S.
neutrality.

U.S Entry
Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Dec. 7,
1941, resulted in U.S. entry into the war
Hitler declared war on U.S.: (another fatal
blunder!) Instead of focusing on Japan,
U.S. (along with Britain) would instead
focus on defeating Germany first.
The Grand Alliance formed in 1942:
Britain, Soviet Union and U.S. and 2
dozen other countries

The Soviet Counterattack

The Germans pushed toward the oil rich
Caucasus region.
Stalingrad was the key. Dec. 1942: first
Nazi defeat on land; Sixth army
surrenders.
Soviets began the 2.5 year campaign of
pushing the German army back to Berlin.
By the end of 1943, the Russians had
taken back 2/3 of Soviet Territory.

War Diplomacy
Casablanca Conference,1943 FDR and
Churchill
declared
a
policy
of
unconditional surrender for all enemies
Italy would be invaded first before opening
2nd Front in France (to Stalin's dismay)
Moscow Conference: 1943: US obtained
Soviet agreement to enter the war against
Japan after Germany was defeated and to
participate in a world organization after the
war was over.

Tehran Conference, 1943

First meeting of the
Big Three:
Roosevelt, Churchill,
Stalin
Allies agreed to an
invasion of the Western
Europe in 1944.
Stalin reaffirmed the
Soviet commitment to
enter the war against
Japan

Tehran Conference, 1943

Stalin insisted on Soviet control of Eastern
Europe and the carving up of Germany
Churchill demanded free governments in
Eastern Europe and a strong Germany
after the war to preserve a balance of
power in Europe.
Roosevelt acted as a mediator and
believed he could work with Stalin to
achieve a post-world peace within the
construct of the United Nations.

The Mediterranean
Operation Torch, 1943: U.S. and
British forces landed on North Africa
El Alamein: British under Bernard
Montgomery (Monty) drove the German
Afrika Corps and General Erwin Rommel
(The Desert Fox)out of Egypt
Germany eventually defeated and suffered
mass casualties and surrenders.
Invasion of Sicily and Italy began in 1943

Allied Air Campaign

In 1944, the Allies began a directed aerial
bombing campaign against Germany.
American air crews specialized in daylight
precision bombing, while the British
conducted nighttime raids.
During the following two years, German
industry, railroads, and cities were
destroyed.

Invasion of Western Europe

D-Day, Operation Overlord, June 6, 1944:
invasion of Normandy (northern French coast)
by American, British, Canadian, and other allied
forces under he command of Gen. Dwight
Eisenhower.
Western front established; spelled end of Nazi
domination of Europe; Paris liberated in August.
Hitler now fighting on three fronts: east against
Russians, west against U.S. and Britain (&
France) and Italy against U.S. and Britain

Allied Victories in the West

Battle of the Bulge, Dec. 1944: Hitler's
last gasp offensive to drive Allies away
from western German border; after it
failed, Allies quickly penetrated deep into
Germany in 1945.

Ending the War

V-E Day, May 8, 1945: Germany
surrenders (Hitler committed suicide a few
days earlier)
End of the war against Japan: U.S.
dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, Russia invades Manchuria

Results of World War II

About 55 million dead (including missing); 22 million
in USSR alone.
Holocaust resulted in deaths of 6 million Jews and
6 million others.
Millions homeless and millions relocated (especially
Germans living outside Germany)
Much of Europe lay in ruins: would take years to
rebuild economy
Women played even larger role in the war economy
than in WWI (gained more rights after war)
The U.S. and Soviet Union emerged as the two
dominant powers in the postwar world.

Roots of the Cold War

Teheran Conference, 1943: USSR guaranteed
to be only power to liberate Eastern Europe
Yalta Conference, 1945:
Stalin pledged to allow democratic elections in
E. Europe (but later reneged)
Germany would be divided into four zones
controlled by U.S., France, Britain and USSR
After war, Soviets dominated their zone and did
not allow reunification of Germany

Securing the Peace

Yalta Conference, 1945: "Big Three" met again
Stalin agreed to enter Pacific war within 3 months after
Germany surrendered
Stalin agreed to a Declaration of Liberated Europe which
called for free elections.
Called for United Nations to meet in U.S. beginning in April
1945
Soviets would have 3 votes in General Assembly
U.S., Britain, USSR, France & China to be permanent
members of Security Council.
Germany to be divided into occupied zones and a coalition
government of communists and non-communists was agreed
to for Poland.
U.S.S.R. allowed to keep its pre-1939 territory.
FDR accepted Soviet control of Outer Mongolia, the Kurile
Islands, the southern half of Sakhalin Island, Port Arthur
(Darien), and partial operation of the Manchurian railroads.

Securing the Peace

Potsdam Conference, July 1945: Stalin, Harry Truman
and Clement Atlee
Issued warning to Japan of unconditional surrender or
face utter devastation
Stalin reversed his position on eastern Europe stating
there would be no free elections
Approvals given to concept of war-crimes trials and the
demilitarization and denazification of Germany.
Reparations from Germany could be taken from each
respective zone.
During conference Truman ordered dropping of atomic
bomb on Japan

International Cooperation

Goering takes the stand

Following the war, nations

met in San Francisco to
sign the United Nations
Charter (building upon the
Atlantic Charter) and the
UN was established in New
York.
In 1945, the Nuremberg
war crimes trials began,
trying the Nazi leaders for
crimes against humanity.

American Perspective
Stalin seemed intent on creating "spheres"
of influence in Eastern Europe
Broke pledges at Yalta; refused to allow
reunification of Germany
Churchhill's "Iron Curtain" speech in 1946
alerted Americans to a future conflict
U.S. wanted democracy spread throughout
the world with a strong international
organization to maintain global peace

Soviet Perspective
Democracies traditionally hostile towards
communism and the USSR
e.g., Archangel expedition during WWI; nonrecognition by U.S. until 1933
US & Britain did not open western front in
Europe early enough; millions of Soviet soldiers
were dying fighting the brunt of Nazi armies
alone until mid-1944.
The US and Britain froze Russia out of the
atomic bomb project.
US terminated lend-lease to Moscow in May
1945 but gave Britain aid until 1946.
Wanted "buffer zone" for the Soviet western
border esp. in Poland

Partition of Germany
USSR, U.S., Britain &
France would each
occupy a part of
Germany but would
allow for German
reunification once she
was no longer a threat.
Germany was to pay
heavy reparations to
USSR in form of
agricultural and
industrial goods.

Partition of Germany
Soviets dominated their Eastern German
zone
Did not want revitalized Germany that
could once again pose a threat.
Stripped E. Germany of much of its
resources.
U.S. and W. Europeans felt German
economy vital to recovery of Europe

Partition of Germany
1949, West Germany became an
independent country when US,
France and Britain gave back
each of their zones
Federal Republic of Germany
led by Konrad Adenauer
1949, East Germany formally
established Democratic
Republic of Germany led by
Walter Ulbricht (1883-1973);
communist regime influenced by
Moscow

Konrad Adenauer

Containment
By 1947, US pledged to prevent further spread
of communism
Truman Doctrine, 1947: U.S. gave aid to
Greece and Turkey to defeat communist forces
there.
Marshall Plan, 1947: Massive aid package to
help war-torn Europe recover from the war
Purpose: prevent communism from spreading into
economically devastated regions
Result: Western and Central Europe recovered
economically -- the "economic miracle"
Soviets refused to allow U.S. aid to countries in
eastern Europe

Containment
Berlin Crisis (1948-49):
Soviets attempted to
remove Allies from Berlin
by cutting off access
One of high tension points
of the Cold War; close to
World War III
U.S. instituted a massive
airlift; Soviets lifted
blockade in 1949

NATO
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) formed in 1949
Collective security organization consisting
of democracies in Europe, U.S. & Canada
to prevent against Soviet expansion in
Europe.
Radio Free Europe & Voice of America
set up to send pro-democracy messages
to countries behind the "iron curtain"

Eastern Bloc
Countries in Eastern Europe
dominated by Soviet Union after
WWII
Included Poland, Hungary,
Czechoslovakia, East Germany,
Rumania, Bulgaria
Communist parties of eastern
Europe established one-party states
by 1948, with help of Red Army and
KGB (Soviet secret police).
The Warsaw Pact was established
in 1955 to counter NATO in west.
Only Yugoslavia, led by Marshal
Tito, is not dominated by Soviets.

Marshall Tito

Eastern Bloc
Postwar economic recovery in eastern Europe
proceeded along Soviet lines.
Changes went forward at slow & uneven pace;
came to almost a halt by the mid-1960s.
Five-year plans in USSR reintroduced to tackle
massive economic reconstruction
Stalin reinstitutes oppressive rule
Great Patriotic War of the Fatherland had
fostered Russian nationalism and a relaxation of
dictatorial terror.

Eastern Bloc
Stalins new foe, the U.S., provided an excuse
for re-establishing harsh dictatorship.
After war, Stalin repressed millions of Soviet
citizens living outside Soviet borders when the
war ended.
Stalin revived many forced labor camp, which
had accounted for roughly 1/6 of all new
construction in Soviet Union before the war
Culture and art were also purged

Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia the economic exception in E.
Europe: industrialized, strong middle class and
industrial working class and experience of
political democracy between the wars.
During dualist period", President Benes and
Foreign minister Jan Masaryk proposed to
govern a social democracy while maintaining
close voluntary relations with the USSR.
In response to Marshall Plan in 1947, Stalin
replaced govt in 1948 with 1-party communist
rule to prevent nation from courting the West.

Post-War Political and Economic Framework

Bretton Woods Conference (1944):
created International Monetary Fund
(IMF), World Bank and WTO
Lay foundations for modern monetary
system; based on U.S. dollar
IMF (World Bank) designed to loan money
to struggling countries to prevent
economic crises and anarchy;
instrumental in post-war economic boom.
United Nations created in 1945.

Western Europe political recovery

Economic hardship after
WWII: scarcity of food,
runaway inflation, black
markets
Many people believed
Europe was finished.
Suffering was worst in
Germany.
Marshall Plan instituted
to help recovery.

Political restructuring
Christian Democrats inspired by common Christian
and European heritage.
Rejected authoritarianism & narrow nationalism; had
faith in democracy and cooperation.
Catholic parties also progressive in nature.
Socialists and Communists also emerged with
increased power and prestige, especially in France
and Italy.
Pushed for social change and economic reform with
considerable success.
Result: social reform and political transformation
created foundations for a great European renaissance.

Italy
Christian Democrats
gained control in 1946
led by Alcide De
Gasperi
Socialist influence:
social benefits came to
equal a large part of the
average workers
wages

France
General Charles De Gaulle, inspiring
wartime leader of Free French, reestablished free and democratic Fourth
Republic (resigned in 1949)
Catholic party provided some of best
postwar leaders e.g. Robert Schuman
Socialist influence: large banks, insurance
companies, public utilities, coal mines, and
the Renault auto company were
nationalized by govt.

West Germany
1949, Konrad
Adenauer began long,
highly successful
democratic rule.
Christian Democrats
became West
Germanys majority
party for a generation

Britain
Clement Attlee, socialist Labour party
leader, defeated Winston Churchill and the
Conservatives in 1945 (later returned to
power).
Attlee moved toward establishment of a
welfare state.
Many industries nationalized, govt
provided each citizen with free medical
service and taxed the middle and upper
classes more heavily.

The Economic Miracle

Unprecedented economic growth in European history
Europe entered period of rapid economic progress
lasting into late 1960s.
By 1963, western Europe produced more than 2.5
times more than before the war.
Causes:
Marshall Plan aid helped western Europe begin recovery in
1947
Korean War in 1950 stimulated economic activity.
Economic growth became a basic objective of all western
European governments.
Governments accepted Keynesian economics to stimulate
their economies.

The Economic Miracle

Germany and France were especially
successful and influential.
In most countries many people willing to
work hard for low wages; expanding
industries benefited.
Increased demand for consumer goods.
Many economic barriers eliminated and a
large unified market emerged: Common
Market.

The Common Market

German economic recovery led by finance
minister Ludwig Erhard
Combined
free-market
economy
&
extensive social welfare network inherited
from Nazi era.
By late 1950s, West Germany had robust
economy, full employment, a strong
currency and stable prices.

The Common Market

France
Combined flexible planning and a mixed state
and private economy to achieve most rapid
economic development in its history.
Jean Monnet: economic pragmatist and
architect of European unity.
France used Marshall Plan aid money and the
nationalized banks to funnel money into key
industries, several of which were state owned.
European Coal and Steal Community in 1958.

European De-Colonization
Postwar era saw total collapse of colonial empires.
Between 1947 and 1962, almost every colonial
territory gained independence.
New nations of Asia and Africa deeply influenced by
Western ideas and achievements.
Causes
Modern nationalism and belief in self-determination and
racial equality, spread from intellectuals to the masses in
virtually every colonial territory after WWI.
Decline of European prestige: Japanese victories;
destruction of Europe during WWII
After 1945, European powers more concerned about
rebuilding; let colonies go

India
India played a key role in decolonization and the end of
empire.
Indian National Congress: British had no choice but to
develop a native political elite that could assist in ruling
such huge country.
Exposure of young Indians to Western ideas of nationalism,
socialism, and democracy led to demands for independence
by the early 20th century.
Mohandas K. Gandhi: after WWI led independence
movement with principle of passive resistance (civil
disobedience)
Jawaharlal Nehru led Congress party in its push for
independence)

India
Clement Attlee and others
in Labour party wished to
focus on internal affairs.
Lord Louis Mountbatten:
appointed to supervise
transition of India to
independence
Divided India into two
nations: India (Hindu) and
Pakistan (Muslim)

China
After WWII (defeat of
Japanese invaders) a civil
war broke out between
communists led by Mao
Zedong and Nationalists
led by Jiang Jieshi
(Chang kai-shek)
Mao won the revolution
and created a communist
country: People's
Republic of China

Indo-China
After Japanese removed after WWII, French
tried to reassert control of Indochina
Ho Chi Minh led the independence movement
in the north
1954, defeated French forces at Dien Bien Phu
1954,Vietnam
was
divided
into
North
(communist) and South (pro-Western); civil war
resulted
U.S. defeated in attempt to prevent communist
takeover of South Vietnam; Vietnam unified in
1975

The Middle East

Arab nationalists loosely united by opposition to
colonialism and migration of Jews to Palestine
Israel and Palestine
Balfour Declaration in 1917 indicated Britain favored
creation of Jewish national home in Palestineopposed by
Saudi Arabia & Transjordan
Great Britain announced its withdrawal from Palestine in
1948.
United Nations voted for creation of two states, one Arab and
one Jewish
Palestinians vowed to fight on until state of Israel destroyed
or until they established own independent Palestinian state;
led to several wars and numerous conflicts in late 20 th century

The Middle East

Egypt
Arab defeat in 1948 by Israel triggered nationalist
revolution in Egypt in 1952.
1956, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser
nationalized the Suez Canal, the last symbol and
substance of Western power in the Middle East.
France, Britain and Israel attacked Egypt, trying to
take back control of Suez Canal
U.S. and Soviet Union demanded their withdrawal
and the canal remained in Egypt's control

Middle East
Algerian Crisis (mid 1950s)
Algerias large French population considered Algeria an
integral part of France.
This feeling led ensuing war; bitter and atypical of
decolonization.
General De Gaulle, who had returned to power as part of
movement to keep Algeria French, accepted principle of
Algerian self-determination.
1962, after more than a century of French rule, Algeria
became independent and the European population quickly
fled.
Crisis led to fall of the Fourth Republic and beginning of the
Fifth Republic

Sub-Saharan Africa
Decolonization proceeded much more smoothly
than in northern Africa
British
Commonwealth
of
Nations:
beginning in 1957, Britains colonies achieved
independence with little or no bloodshed;
entered a very loose association with Britain.
Exception: Mao Mao society were a Kenyan
group of terrorists/freedom fighters who
fought to end English control of Kenya.

Sub-Saharan Africa
1958, De Gaulle offered leaders of French black Africa
choice of total break with France or immediate
independence within a kind of French commonwealth.
All but one of new states chose association with France.
Cultural imperialism continued,
France and Common Market partners saw themselves as
continuing their civilizing mission in black Africa.
Desired untapped markets for industrial goods, raw
materials, outlets for profitable investment, and good
temporary jobs for their engineers and teachers.