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Chapter 2
Free Vibration of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems
Learning Objective
Chapter Outline
2.1
Introduction
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
Graphical Representation of Characteristic Roots and Corresponding Solutions
2.8
Chapter Outline
2.9
2.10
2.11
Stability of Systems
2.1
Introduction
2.1
2.1 Introduction
Free
2.1 Introduction
Several
2.2
Free Vibration of an Undamped Translational System
2.2
If mass m is displaced
a distance x (t ) when acted upon by a
d dx (t )
F (t ) m
dt
dt
d x (t )
F (t ) m
mx
(2.1)
2
dt
2
d
x (t )
where x
is the acceleration of the mass
2
dt
11 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
M (t ) J
where M
(2.2)
d 2 (t ) / dt 2
F (t ) kx mx or mx kx 0
( 2.3)
1.
DAlemberts Principle
The equations of motion, Eqs. (2.1) & (2.2) can be rewritten as
F (t ) mx 0
M (t ) J 0
(2.4a )
(2.4b)
kx mx 0
13 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
or
mx kx 0
(2.3)
2.
2.
mxx kxx 0
(2.5)
mx kx 0
(2.3)
3.
T U constant or
d
(T U ) 0
dt
( 2.6)
3.
1 2
T mx
2
1 2
U kx
2
(2.7)
(2.8)
Substitution of Eqs. (2.7) & (2.8) into Eq. (2.6) yields the desired
equation
mx kx 0
(2.3)
W mg k st
(2.9)
mx k ( x st ) W
and since k st W , we obtain
mx kx 0
19 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
(2.10)
(2.15)
(2.16)
x(t 0) A1 x0
x (t 0) n A2 x 0
(2.17)
Hence, A1 x0 and A2 x 0 / n
Solution of Eq. (2.3) is subjected to the initial conditions of Eq.
(2.17) which is given by
x 0
x(t ) x0 cos nt
sin nt
n
21 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
(2.18)
Harmonic Motion
Eqs.(2.15), (2.16) & (2.18) are harmonic functions of time. Eq.
(2.16) can also be expressed as:
x(t ) A0 sin(nt 0 )
where A0 and
respectively:
(2.23)
x
A0 A x 0
n
2
0
x0n
0 tan
x 0
1
2 1/ 2
(2.24)
(2.25)
Harmonic Motion
The nature of harmonic oscillation can be represented graphically as
shown in the figure.
Harmonic Motion
Note the following aspects of spring-mass systems:
1.
Hence, n
st
W mg
st st
1/ 2
(2.28)
1/ 2
(2.26)
(2.27)
Harmonic Motion
Note the following aspects of spring-mass systems:
1.
1
fn
2
Natural period:
st
1/ 2
st
1
n
2
fn
g
(2.29)
1/ 2
(2.30)
Harmonic Motion
Note the following aspects of spring-mass systems:
2.
dx
(t ) n A sin(nt ) n A cos(nt )
dt
2
d 2x
x(t ) 2 (t ) n2 A cos(nt ) n2 A cos(nt )
dt
x (t )
(2.31)
Harmonic Motion
Note the following aspects of spring-mass systems:
3.
If initial displacement
x0
is zero,
x 0
x 0
x(t )
cos nt
sin nt
n
2 n
x(t ) x0 cos n t
(2.33)
(2.32)
Harmonic Motion
Note the following aspects of spring-mass systems:
4.
sin(nt )
x
y
An
A
(2.35)
(2.36)
where
y x / n
Harmonic Motion
Note the following aspects of spring-mass systems:
4.
m
m
vm
M m
M m
x 0
2 gh
(E.1)
mg
x0
,
k
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M m
x 0
2 gh
(E.2)
x(t ) A cos(nt )
where
x 0
A x
n
2
0
2 1/ 2
x 0
tan
x0n
, n
k
3EI
3
M m
l ( M m)
2W 2W
The total movement of the mass m (point O) is 2
k k
2
1
The equivalent spring constant of the system is
Weight of the mass
Net displacement of the mass
Equivalent spring constant
1 1 4W (k1 k 2 )
W
4W
k eq
k1k 2
k1 k 2
k1k 2
k eq
4(k1 k 2 )
34 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
(E.1)
mx keq x 0
(E.2)
n
m
1/ 2
k1k 2
m
(
k
k
)
1
2
1
k1k 2
fn n
2 4 m(k1 k 2 )
35 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
1/ 2
rad/sec
(E.3)
cycles/sec
(E.4)
1/ 2
2.3
Free Vibration of an Undamped Torsional System
2.3
Mt
GI 0
l
(2.37)
where
Mt = torque that produces the twist ,
G = shear modulus,
l = is the length of shaft,
I0 = polar moment of inertia of cross section of shaft
d 4
I0
32
(2.38)
l
32l
(2.39)
Equation of Motion:
J 0 kt 0
(2.40)
kt
n
J0
1/ 2
(2.41)
J0
n 2
kt
1/ 2
(2.42) ,
1
fn
2
kt
J0
1/ 2
(2.43)
1)
If the cross section of the shaft supporting the disc is not circular,
an appropriate torsional spring constant is to be used.
2)
hD 4 WD 4
J0
32
8g
3)
Example 2.6
Natural Frequency of Compound Pendulum
Any rigid body pivoted at a point other than its center of mass will
oscillate about the pivot point under its own gravitational force. Such a
system is known as a compound pendulum as shown. Find the natural
frequency of such a system.
Example 2.6
Natural Frequency of Compound Pendulum
Solution
For a displacement , the restoring torque (due to the weight of the
body W) is (Wd sin ) and the equation of motion is
J 0 Wd sin 0
(E.1)
J 0 Wd 0
(E.2)
Wd
n
J0
mgd
J0
(E.3)
Example 2.6
Natural Frequency of Compound Pendulum
Solution
Comparing with natural frequency, the length of equivalent simple
pendulum is
J0
md
(E.4)
k0
(E.5) , l
(E.6)
Example 2.6
Natural Frequency of Compound Pendulum
Solution
If kG denotes the radius of gyration of the body about G, we have:
k k d
2
0
2
G
kG2
(E.7) and l
d
d
kG2
GA
d
Eq.(E.8) becomes
l GA d OA
(E.9)
(E.10)
(E.8)
Example 2.6
Natural Frequency of Compound Pendulum
Solution
Hence, from Eq.(E.5), n is given by
g
n 2
k
/
d
0
1/ 2
g
l
1/ 2
OA
1/ 2
(E.11)
This equation shows that, no matter whether the body is pivoted from
O or A, its natural frequency is the same. The point A is called the
center of percussion.
Example 2.6
Natural Frequency of Compound Pendulum
Solution
2.4
Response of First-Order Systems and Time Constant
2.4
2.47
Jw ct w 0
where w
dw
dt
w t Ae st 2.48
where A and s are unknown constants
w t w0 e st
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2.49
w0 e st Js ct 0
2.50
Js ct 0
2.51
ct
c
Jt t
. Thus the solution, Eq. (2.49), becomes w t w0 e
J
Because the exponent of Eq. (2.52) is known to be ct , the time
J
constant will be equal to J
2.53
ct
For t
w t w0 e
Jt
w0 e 1 0.368w0
2.54
Thus the response reduces to 0.368 times its initial value at a time
equal to the time constant of the system.
2.5
Rayleighs Energy Method
2.5
T1 U1 T2 U 2
(2.55)
Tmax U max
(2.57)
Example 2.8
Effect of Mass on wn of a Spring
Determine the effect of the mass of the spring on the natural
frequency of the spring-mass system shown in the figure below.
Example 2.8
Effect of Mass on wn of a Spring
Solution
The kinetic energy of the spring element of length dy is
1 m
yx
dTs s dy
2 l
l
(E.1)
(E.2)
Example 2.8
Effect of Mass on wn of a Spring
Solution
The total potential energy of the system is given by
1 2
kx
2
(E.3)
x(t ) X cos n t
(E.4)
Tmax
1
ms 2 2
m
X n
2
3
1 2
kX
2
(E.6)
Example 2.8
Effect of Mass on wn of a Spring
Solution
By equating Tmax and Umax, we obtain the expression for the natural
frequency:
1/ 2
m ms
(E.7)
Thus the effect of the mass of spring can be accounted for by adding
one-third of its mass to the main mass.
2.6
Free Vibration with Viscous Damping
2.6
Equation of Motion:
F cx
(2.58)
where c = damping
mx cx kx
mx cx kx 0
(2.59)
x(t ) Ce st
(2.60)
ms 2 cs k 0
(2.61)
s1, 2
c c 4mk
c
k
c
2m
2m
2
m
m
(2.63)
(2.62)
c
k
c
t
2
m
2
m
m
C1e
c
k
c
t
2
m
2
m
m
C2 e
(2.64)
where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants to be determined from the initial conditions of the system
k
k
cc
2 km 2mn
0 cc 2m
m
m
2m
The damping ratio is defined as:
c / cc
(2.66)
(2.65)
x(t ) C1e
2 1 t
C2 e
2 1 t
(2.69)
s1 i 1
s2
n
n
x(t ) C1e
e
i 1 2 t
n t
C e
C2 e
i 1 2 n t
i 1 2 t
C2 e
i 1 2 n t
e nt C1 cos 1 2 nt C2 sin 1 2 nt
Xe nt sin 1 2 nt
X 0 e nt cos 1 2 nt 0
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(2.70)
C1 x0 and C2
x 0 n x0
(2.71)
1 n
2
x(t ) e
n t
x0 cos 1 nt
2
x 0 n x0
1 n
2
sin 1 nt
(2.72)
( 2.76)
cc
s1 s2
n (2.77)
2m
Due to repeated roots, the solution of Eq.(2.59) is given by
(2.78)
C1 x0 and C2 x 0 n x0
(2.79)
x(t ) x0 x 0 n x0 t e nt
(2.80)
s1 2 1 n 0
s2
x(t ) C1e
2 1 t
C2 e
2 1 t
(2.81)
C1
C2
x0n 2 1 x 0
2n 2 1
x0n 2 1 x 0
2n 1
2
(2.82)
Logarithmic Decrement:
Using Eq.(2.70),
x1 X 0 e nt1 cos(d t1 0 )
x2 X 0 e nt 2 cos(d t 2 0 )
e nt1
n t1 d
e n d
(2.83)
(2.84)
x1
2
2 c
ln n d n
(2.85)
2
x2
d 2m
1
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Logarithmic Decrement:
For small damping,
Hence,
or
Thus
if
1 x1
ln
m xm 1
(2.86)
(2.87)
(2.88)
(2.92)
where m is an integer
dW
dx
2
force velocity Fv cv c
dt
dt
(2.93)
W t 0
dx
2
2
2
2
dt
0 cX d cos d t d (d t ) cd X
dt
(2.94)
F kx cv kx cx
(2.95)
x(t ) X sin d t
(2.96)
(2.97)
2 / d
t 0
2 / d
t 0
2 / d
t 0
Fvdt
kX 2d sin d t cos d t d (d t )
cd X 2 cos 2 d t d (d t ) cd X 2
(2.98)
2
W
cd X 2
2
1
W
d
m d2 X 2
2
2 4 constant
2m
(2.99)
where W is either the max potential energy or the max kinetic energy
(W / 2 ) W
loss coefficient
W
2W
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(2.100)
T ct
(2.101)
J 0 ct kt 0
(2.102)
d 1 2 n
(2.103)
where
n
and
kt
J0
(2.104)
ct
ct
ct
ctc 2 J 0n 2 kt J 0
(2.105)
ctc = critical torsional damping constant
Example 2.11
Shock Absorber for a Motorcycle
An underdamped shock absorber is to be designed for a motorcycle of
mass 200kg (shown in Fig.(a)). When the shock absorber is subjected
to an initial vertical velocity due to a road bump, the resulting
displacement-time curve is to be as indicated in Fig.(b). Find the
necessary stiffness and damping constants of the shock absorber if
the damped period of vibration is to be 2 s and the amplitude x1 is to
be reduced to one-fourth in one half cycle (i.e., x1.5 = x1/4). Also find
the minimum initial velocity that leads to a maximum displacement of
250 mm.
Example 2.11
Shock Absorber for a Motorcycle
Example 2.11
Shock Absorber for a Motorcycle
Solution
Since x1.5
becomes
x1
2
ln
ln 16 2.7726
1 2
x2
(E.1)
Example 2.11
Shock Absorber for a Motorcycle
Solution
From which can be found as 0.4037 and the damped period of
vibration is given by 2 s. Hence,
2
2
2 d
d n 1 2
2
2 1 (0.4037)
3.4338 rad/s
Example 2.11
Shock Absorber for a Motorcycle
Solution
The critical damping constant can be obtained as
Example 2.11
Shock Absorber for a Motorcycle
Solution
The displacement of the mass will attain its max value at time t 1 is
sin d t1 1 2
sin d t1 sin t1 1 (0.4037) 2 0.9149
sin 1 (0.9149)
t1
0.3678 sec
Example 2.11
Shock Absorber for a Motorcycle
Solution
The envelope passing through the max points is x 1 2 Xe nt
Since x = 250mm, 0.25 1 (0.4037) 2 Xe ( 0.4037 )(3.4338)( 0.3678) X 0.4550 m
The velocity of mass can be obtained by
x(t ) Xe nt sin d t
x (t ) Xe nt ( n sin d t d cos d t )
87 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
(E.3)
(E.2)
Example 2.11
Shock Absorber for a Motorcycle
Solution
When t = 0,
x (t 0) x 0 Xd Xn 1 2
(0.4550)(3.4338) 1 (0.4037) 2
1.4294 m/s
2.7
Graphical Representation of Characteristic Roots and
Corresponding Solutions
2.7
mx cx kx 0
2.106
ms 2 cs k 0
s 2 2wn s wn2 0
2.108
c c 2 4mk
s1 , s2
2m
s1 , s2 wn iwn 1 2
2.110
2.111
If the roots lie on the imaginary axis (with zero real value), the
corresponding response will be naturally stable.
If the roots have a zero imaginary part, the corresponding response
will not oscillate.
The response of the system will exhibit an oscillatory behavior only
when the roots have nonzero imaginary parts.
The farther the roots lie to the left of the s-plane, the faster the
corresponding response decreases.
The larger the imaginary part of the roots, the higher the frequency of
oscillation of the corresponding response of the system.
2.8
Parameter Variations and Root Locus Representations
2.8
Interpretations of wn , wd ,
The angle made by the line OA with the imaginary axis is given by
wn
sin
wn
sin 1
2.113
1
The time constant of the system is defined as
wn
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Interpretations of wn , wd ,
Interpretations of wn , wd ,
Interpretations of wn , wd ,
s1, 2
4mk
k
iwn
2m
m
2.115
c
wn
2m
For
and
4mk c 2
wn 1 2 wd
2m
2.117
2.116
wd
wn
sin
, cos
wn
wn
wn
with 1 2
The two roots trace loci or paths in the form of circular arcs as the
damping ratio is increased from zero to unity as shown
3s 2 c 27 0
s1, 2
c c 2 324
E.2
s 16 s k 0 2.121
s1, 2
16 256 4k
8 64 k
2
2.122
ms 2 14 s 20 0
2.123
s1, 2
14 196 80m
2.124
2.9
Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping
2.9
Coulombs law of dry friction states that, when two bodies are in
contact, the force required to produce sliding is proportional to the
normal force acting in the plane of contact. Thus, the friction force
F is given by:
F N W mg
(2.125)
Equation of Motion:
Consider a single degree of freedom system with dry friction as
shown in Fig.(a) below.
Equation of Motion:
Case 1.
When x is positive and dx/dt is positive or when x is negative and
dx/dt is positive (i.e., for the half cycle during which the mass
moves from left to right) the equation of motion can be obtained
using Newtons second law (Fig.b):
mx kx N
Hence
or
mx kx N
N
x(t ) A1 cos nt A2 sin nt
k
where n = k/m is the frequency of vibration
A1 & A2 are constants
(2.126)
(2.127)
Equation of Motion:
Case 2.
When x is positive and dx/dt is negative or when x is negative and
dx/dt is negative (i.e., for the half cycle during which the mass
moves from right to left) the equation of motion can be derived
from Fig. (c):
kx N mx
or mx kx N
(2.128)
N
x(t ) A3 cos nt A4 sin nt
k
where A3 & A4 are constants
116 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
(2.129)
Equation of Motion:
Solution:
Eqs.(2.107) & (2.109) can be expressed as a single equation using
N = mg:
mx mg sgn( x ) kx 0
(2.130)
x(t 0) x0
x (t 0) 0
118 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
(2.131)
Solution:
The solution is valid for half the cycle only, i.e., for 0 t / n.
Hence, the solution becomes the initial conditions for the next half
cycle. The procedure continued until the motion stops, i.e., when x n
N/k. Thus the number of half cycles (r) that elapse before the
motion ceases is:
2 N N
k
k
N
x0
k (2.134)
2 N
k
x0 r
Solution:
Note the following characteristics of a system with Coulomb
damping:
1.
2.
Solution:
Note the following characteristics of a system with Coulomb
damping:
3.
4.
The system comes to rest after some time with Coulomb damping,
whereas the motion theoretically continues forever (perhaps with
an infinitesimally small amplitude) with viscous damping.
Solution:
Note the following characteristics of a system with Coulomb
damping:
5.
6.
X m X m 1
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4N
k
(2.135)
J 0 kt T
J 0 kt T
(2.136)
(2.137)
kt
J0
(2.138)
2T
r 0 r
kt
(2.139)
0 k
t
r
2T
kt
124 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
(2.140)
Example 2.15
Pulley Subjected to Coulomb Damping
A steel shaft of length 1 m and diameter 50 mm is fixed at one end
and carries a pulley of mass moment of inertia 25 kg-m2 at the other
end. A band brake exerts a constant frictional torque of 400 N-m
around the circumference of the pulley. If the pulley is displaced by 6
and released, determine (1) the number of cycles before the pulley
comes to rest and (2) the final settling position of the pulley.
Example 2.15
Pulley Subjected to Coulomb Damping
Solution
(1) The number of half cycles that elapse before the angular motion of
the pullet ceases is:
T
0 k
t
r
(E.1)
2
T
GJ
(0.05) 4
32
49,087.5 N - m/rad
1
(8 1010 )
Example 2.15
Pulley Subjected to Coulomb Damping
Solution
With constant friction torque applied to the pulley = 400 N-m., Eq.
(E.1) gives
400
49
,
087
.
5
5.926
800
49,087.5
0.10472
r
Example 2.15
Pulley Subjected to Coulomb Damping
Solution
(2) The angular displacement after six half cycles:
400
0.10472 6 2
0.006935 rad 0.39734
49,087.5
from the equilibrium position on the same side of the initial
displacement.
2.10
Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping
2.10
F kx cx
(2.141)
F (t ) kX sin t cX cos t
kx c X 2 ( X sin t ) 2
kx c X 2 x 2
(2.143)
Spring-viscous-damper system
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W Fdx
2 /
(2.144)
h
c
(2.145)
(2.146)
Hysteresis loop
Complex Stiffness
For general harmonic motion, x Xe it , the force is given by
(2.147)
F (k ih) x
h
where k ih k 1 i k (1 i )
k
(2.148)
(2.149)
Xj
ln
ln(1 )
X
j 1
Corresponding frequency
m
135 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
(2.155)
(2.154)
(2.150)
2 eq
h
eq
k
2 2k
(2.156)
k h
ceq cc eq 2 mk mk
(2.157)
Example 2.17
Response of a Hysteretically Damped Bridge Structure
A bridge structure is modeled as a single degree of freedom system
with an equivalent mass of 5 X 105 kg and an equivalent stiffness of
25 X106 N/m. During a free vibration test, the ratio of successive
amplitudes was found to be 1.04. Estimate the structural damping
constant () and the approximate free vibration response of the
bridge.
Example 2.17
Response of a Hysteretically Damped Bridge Structure
Solution
Using the ratio of successive amplitudes,
Xj
ln(1.04) ln(1 )
ln
X
j 1
0.04
1 1.04 or
0.0127
k k
ceq
km
k
m
(E.1)
Example 2.17
Response of a Hysteretically Damped Bridge Structure
Solution
Using the known values of the equivalent stiffness and equivalent
mass,
ceq (0.0127) (25 106 )(5 105 ) 44.9013 103 N - s/m
Since ceq < cc, the bridge is underdamped. Hence, its free vibration
response is
x(t ) e
n t
x0 cos 1 nt
2
ceq
x 0 n x0
1 n
2
40.9013 103
0.0063
cc 7071.0678 103
140 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
sin 1 n t
2.11
Stability of Systems
2.11
Example 2.18
Stability of a System
Consider a uniform rigid bar, of mass m and length l, pivoted at one
end and connected symmetrically by two springs at the other end, as
shown in the figure. Assuming that the springs are unstretched
when the bar is vertical, derive the equation of motion of the system
for small angular displacements of the bar about the pivot point, and
investigate the stability behavior of the system.
Example 2.18
Stability of a System
Example 2.18
Stability of a System
The equation of motion of the bar, for rotation about the point O, is
ml 2
l
2kl sin l cos W sin 0
3
2
E.1
ml 2
Wl
2
2kl 0
3
2
2 0 E.3
146 2011 Mechanical Vibrations Fifth Edition in SI Units
E.2
Example 2.18
Stability of a System
12kl 2 3Wl
Where
2
2ml
E.4
12kl
3Wl / 2ml 2 0
12kl 2 3Wl
wn
2ml
E.6
1/ 2
E.7
Example 2.18
Stability of a System
t C1t C2
E.8
t t 0
E.9
Equation (E.9) shows that the system is unstable with the angular
displacement increasing linearly at a constant velocity
Example 2.18
Stability of a System
t B1et B2 e t
For the initial conditions
E.10
t 0 0 and t 0 0
E.11
1
0 0 et 0 0 e t
2