EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

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 Experimentation
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• Issues in experimentation
•

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Experimental Validity
• Experimental environment
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4
• Types of experimental designs
 Definition
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An experiment refers to the process
of manipulating one or more

2
variables and measuring their
effect on the other variable,
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controlling external variables.
 Aim
The aim of the experiment is to
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establish and measure the casual

relationship between the variables.

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Variables:
– Independent Variable
– Dependent Variable
 Issues in Experimentation
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• Treatment of Independent variables.

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• Experimental groups and control groups.

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• Selection and measurement of dependent

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variable.
• Control of extraneous variables.
 Treatment of Independent variables.
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The treatment level of the independent

2
variable are the distinctions the researcher

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makes between different aspects of the

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treatment condition during an experiment.
 Experimental Groups and Control
Groups
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The experimental group is a one in which

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the experiment is conducted.

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The control group is a group of test units
that are not exposed to the change in the
independent variable.
 Selection and Measurement of
the Dependent Variable.
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The dependent or response variable
is the variable whose behaviour is to
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be measured as a result of an
experiment.
 Control of Extraneous Variables
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Other extraneous variables, which

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2
influence the dependent variable, have to

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be controlled to determine the real effect
of manipulation in the independent
variable on the dependent variable.
 Experimental Validity
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• Validity is the extent to which a research
process is accurate.

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• Free from systematic errors.

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• Types:
Internal Validity
External Validity
 Internal Validity
Internal validity indicates to what extent
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the change in the dependent variable in an

2
experiment is caused by the manipulation
of independent variables.
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 Types of Extraneous Variable
• History
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• Maturation

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2
• Testing

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• Instrumentation
• Selection bias
• Statistical regression
• Morality
 External Validity
External validity examines to what extent
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the experimental findings can generalized to

the population from which test units are

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2
drawn.

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A field experiment provides greater external
validity compared to a laboratory
expenditure.
 EXPERIMENTAL ENVIRONMENT
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• Laboratory Environment
- conducted in controlled environment.

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2
- Effect of extraneous variables on

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dependent variables can be controlled.
Example
Showing advertisements or products to
select customers in closed environment.
 FIELD EXPERIMENTS
• Experiments conducted in natural settings.
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• May have high degree of external validity but

require greater time,effort and are expensive.

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2
• Example

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-Launching Products in Select regions
-Analyzing customer response to trail
offers.
 TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
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• Pre-Experimental Designs

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-Lack proper control mechanisms to deal with

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influence of extraneous variables on
experimental results.

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a) One shot design
Exposing the experimental group to
treatment X after which the measurement (O1) of
the dependent variable taken.
Symbolically shown as
EG: X O1
 Example
0 0 1 1 0 0A1 0 company
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0may
1 0 1 0 0launch
1011 a sales promotion
initiative in select super markets.
- Because of limitations used more for

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2
exploratory research.

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• One-Group pre-test-post-test design

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Measurements are taken before and after

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experimental treatment.Symbolically

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represented as:
EG: O1 X O2
 Example
HR manager may plan training the employees and
0 0 1 1 0 0measure
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0the
1 0 0 0productivity
1 0100 1011 change – may measure
before and after a training program.

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-Lacks in proper control mechanism

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• Static Group Design

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Two groups of test units involved
-Experimental and Control Group
Symbolically represented as
EG : X O1
CG : O2
 Various extraneous variables influence
experimental results – primary being selection
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bias.
• TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

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2
-Use Randomization to control the influence of

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extraneous variables.
Prominent True experimental designs used
• Pre-test-post-test control Group Design
• Post-test-only control group design
• Solomon Four Group Design
 Pre-test-post-test control Group Design
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• Two groups are involved –
Experimental group and Control Group

2
– Pre-test and Post-test measurement of

1
the dependent variables are taken for

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the two groups.

EG : R O1 X O2
CG : R O3 O4
 Post-test-only control group Design
• First is exposed to the experimental
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treatment and the second is unexposed.

2
Post test measurement of the dependent

1
variables is taken for both groups.

4
EG : R X O1
CG : R O2
 • Solomon Four-group Design
0 0 1 1 0Two
0 1 0 1 0 1experimental
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1groups
011 and Two control
groups are involved – two pre-test and four
post-test.

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2
4
EG : R O1 X O2
CG : R O3 O4
EG : R X O5
CG : R O6
 Quasi-Experimental Designs
• The Time-Series Experiment: This design
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involves periodic measurements of some group
or individuals and the introduction of a change

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into the conditions during the series.

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– For example, studying a group of workers over time

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and taking several measures of productivity during
this period. At some point a new work process is
introduced and measures of productivity are taken
over several weeks following the intervention.

O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6
 Statistical design
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• Completely Randomized Design

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• Randomized Complete Block Design

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• Latin Square Design

• Factorial Design
 COMPLETELY RANDOMIZED DESIGN
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 COMPLETELY RANDOMIZED DESIGN
We have experimental units that
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• may be grouped according to one or several
factors (the grouping factors)

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2
Then on each experimental unit we have

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• not a single measurement but a group of
measurements (the repeated measures)
• The repeated measures may be taken at
combinations of levels of one or several
factors (The repeated measures factors)
 Model for Completely Random Experiment

Y µ+T+E
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ij = j ij

i = 1,2,…, t j = 1,2,…, t

1
2
yij(k) = the observation in ith row and the jth

4
column
 = overall mean
i = the effect of the ith treatment
ij = random error
 Problem Statement
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• Four business schools ( A,B,C,D )

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• Products grouped as S1,S2,S3,S4
•
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Four graduates from each Business School

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• To test whether there is significant
difference in weekly sales made between
Graduates of diff. B-Schools
 DATA
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BUSINESS SCHOOL (Rs. In Lakhs)

2
A B C D

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4
23 (A1) 30 (B1) 35 (C1) 28 (D1)
34 (A2) 20(B2) 29 (C2) 40 (D2)
45 (A3) 30 (B3) 25 (C3) 40 (D3)
34 (A4) 20 (B4) 45 (C4) 34 (D4)

136 100 134 142

 Hypothesis
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H0 : T1=T2=T3=T4

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4
Ha: Treatment means are not equal for at
least one pair of treatment means
 Diagram
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SS TOTAL

2
=
938
1
SS TREATEMENT
=
270
4
SS ERROR
=
668
 Anova Table
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2
source of variation Degree of freedom sum of squares MSS F-ratio

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Between treatment 3 270 90 1.617
Within treatment (error) 12 668 57.67
Total 15 938
 Conclusion
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Fcalculated: [1.617] < F =0.05 & df=(3,12) [3.49]
Null Hypothesis should be accepted
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Inference: No significant difference in
terms of sales made between graduates of
different business School
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 RANDOMIZED COMPLETE

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BLOCK DESIGN
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 RANDOMIZED COMPLETE
BLOCK DESIGN
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We have experimental units that

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• may be grouped according to one or several

1
factors (the grouping factors)

4
Then on each experimental unit we have
• not a single measurement but a group of
measurements (the repeated measures)
• The repeated measures may be taken at
combinations of levels of one or several
factors (The repeated measures factors)
 Model

Yij = µ +Bi + Tj + Eij

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i = 1,2,…, t j = 1,2,…, t

1
2
yij = the observation in ith row and the jth column

4
 = overall mean
 = the effect of the ith treatment
j = the effect of the jth Block
ij(k) = random error
 Problem Statement
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• Four business schools ( A,B,C,D )

•

2
Products grouped as S1,S2,S3,S4

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• Study of sales for 4 weeks as W1,W2,W3,W4

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• Four graduates from each Business School
• To test whether there is significant difference in
weekly sales made between
a) Graduates of diff. B-Schools
b) Diff. sections of showroom
 Example
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w1 w2 w3 w4

2
S1
(A1) 23 (B1) 30 (C3) 25 (D1) 28

1
4
S2 (B2) 29 (C2) 29 (A2) 34 (D4) 34

S3 (A3) 45 (D3) 40 (B3) 30 (C4) 45

s4 (C1) 35 (B4) 20 (D2) 40 (A4) 34

Column = Period, Row= section

 REARRANGED DATA
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w1 w2 w3 w4

106
(A1) 23 (B1) 30 (C3) 25 (D1) 28

2
S1

1 117

4
S2 (A2) 34 (B2) 20 (C2) 29 (D4) 34
160
S3 (A3) 45 (B3) 30 (C4) 45 (D3) 40
129
s4 (A4) 34 (B4) 20 (C1) 35 (D2) 40

136 100 134 142

Column = Period, Row= section

 HYPOTHESIS
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• FOR TREATMENT ( BUSINESS SCHOOL)

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– H0: T1=T2=T3=T4

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– Ha: Treatment means are not equal for at least one pair

4
of treatment means

• FOR BLOCK ( SECTION)

– H0: B1=B2=B3=B4
– Ha: Blocks means are not equal for at least one pair of
Block means
 Diagram
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SS TOTAL

2
=
938
1
SS TREATEMENT
=
270
SS BLOCK
=
407.5
4
SS ERROR
=
260.5
 The Anova Table for a Latin Square Experiment

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Source S.S. d.f. M.S. F

2
Treatment SSTr t-1 MSTr MSTr /MSE

1
4
Block SSRow t-1 MSRow MSRow /MSE

Error SSE (t-1)(t-2) MSE

Total SST t2 - 1
 The Anova Table for Example

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Source S.S. d.f. M.S. F
Between 270 3 90 3.11

1
2
Treatment

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Between 407.5 3 135.83 4.69
Blocks
Error 260.5 9 28.94

Total 938.0 15
 Conclusion
• Component- treatment (business school): for
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this component

2
Fcal [3.11] < f = 0.05 & df = (3,9) [3.86]
H0 should be accepted
1
4
• Component- block (section): for this
component
Fcal [4.69] > f = 0.05 & df = (3,9) [3.86]
H0 should be rejected
 2
Latin Square Designs
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 The Model for a Latin Experiment
y         i   j   ij  k 
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1ij0 k1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0k 1 0 1 1

i = 1,2,…, t j = 1,2,…, t k = 1,2,…, t

1
2
yij(k) = the observation in ith row and the jth

4
column receiving the kth treatment
 = overall mean
k = the effect of the ith treatment
No interaction
i = the effect of the i row
th
between rows,
j = the effect of the jth column columns and
treatments
ij(k) = random error
 Latin Square Designs
Selected Latin Squares

0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 03
10 x
1 1 03
140 0 0x
1 04
100 1011

A B CA B C D ABCD ABCD ABCD

B C AB A D C BCDA BDAC BADC

1
2
C A BC D B A CDAB CADB CDAB
DCAB DABC DCBA DCBA

4
 
5x5 6x6
ABCDE ABCDEF
BAECD BFDCAE
CDAEB CDEFBA
DEBAC DAFECB
ECDBA FEBADC
 Definition
• A Latin square is a square array of objects (letters
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A, B, C, …) such that each object appears once

and only once in each row and each column.

1
2
Example - 4 x 4 Latin Square.

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ABCD
BCDA
CDAB
DABC
 
 In a Latin square You have three factors:
• Treatments (t) (letters A, B, C, …)
0 0 1 1 0•0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
Rows (t)
• Columns (t)

1
2
The number of treatments = the number of rows =

4
the number of colums = t.
The row-column treatments are represented by cells
in a t x t array.
The treatments are assigned to row-column
combinations using a Latin-square arrangement
 
 • A Latin Square experiment is assumed to be a
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0three-factor
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1experiment.
0100 1011

• The factors are rows, columns and treatments.

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2
• It is assumed that there is no interaction between
rows, columns and treatments.

4
• The degrees of freedom for the interactions is
used to estimate error.
 WEEKLY SALES IN LATIN SQUARE DESIGN
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w1 w2 w3 w4

2
S1
A1 D2 B1 C1

1
4
S2 B2 C4 A2 D3

S3
C3 A3 D4 B4

D1 B3 C2 A4
s4

Column = Period, Row= section

 WEEKLY SALES IN LATIN SQUARE DESIGN
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w1 w2 w3 w4

(A1) 23 (D2) 40 (B1) 30 (C1) 35 128

2
S1

(B2) 20 (C4) 45 (A2) 34

1
(D3) 40 139

4
S2

S3 (C3) 25 (A3) 45 (D4) 34 (B4) 20 124

s4 (D1) 28 (B3) 30 (C2) 29 (A4) 34 121

96 160 127 129

Column = Period, Row= section

 HYPOTHESIS
• FOR TREATMENT ( BUSINESS SCHOOL)
0 0 1 1 0 0 1–0 H
1 001: 0T1=T2=T3=T4
1101 0001 0100 1011
– Ha: Treatment means are not equal for at least one pair of
treatment means

1
2
• FOR Row ( SECTION)

4
– H0: B1=B2=B3=B4
– Ha: Row means are not equal for at least one pair of row
means

• FOR COLUMN (PERIOD)

– H0: P1=P2=P3=P4
– Ha: Column means are not equal for at least one pair of
column means
 Diagram
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SS TOTAL

2
=
938

1
SS TREATEMENT
=
270
SS ROWS
=
46.5
=
512.5

4
SS COLUMN SS ERROR
=
109
 The Anova Table for a Latin Square Experiment

Source S.S. d.f.

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value
Treat SSTr t-1 MSTr MSTr /MSE

1
2
Rows SSRow t-1 MSRow MSRow /MSE

4
Cols SSCol t-1 MSCol MSCol /MSE
Error SSE (t-1)(t-2) MSE
Total SST t2 - 1
 The Anova Table for Example

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Source S.S. d.f. M.S. F
Between treatments 270.0 3 90.0 4.95

1
2
Between rows 46.5 3 15.50 0.85

Between columns 512.5 3 170.83 9.40

4
Error 109.0 6 18.17

Total 938.0 15
 Conclusion
•
0 0 1 1 0 0Component-
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 treatment
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 (business
1011 school): for this component
Fcal [4.95] > f = 0.05 & df = (3,6) [4.76]
H0 should be rejected

1
2
Inference : this means that there is significant difference in
terms of weekly sales made in between the graduates of

4
different business school
• Component- row (section): for this component
Fcal [0.85] < f = 0.05 & df = (3,6) [4.76]
H0 should be accepted
Inference : this means that there is no significant difference in
terms of weekly sales made in between different sections of
showroom
 Conclusion
• Component- block (period): for this
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component

2
Fcal [9.40] > f = 0.05 & df = (3,6) [4.76]
H0 should be rejected
1
4
Inference : this means that there is significant
difference in terms of weekly sales made in
between different weks of the showroom
 Factorial design
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• An experiment in which the effects of

2
multiple factors are investigated
simultaneously.
1
4
• The treatments consist of all combinations
that can be formed from the different
factors.
– e.g. an experiment with 5 2-level factors would
result in 32 treatments
 Definition of Factorial Design
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• The treatments are assigned randomly to the

2
pool of experimental units with an equal
number of units in each treatment.
1
4
• The number of experimental units assigned
to each treatment is referred to as the
number of replications.
 2 Factor Model Specification
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Yi = B0 + B1X1i + B2X2i + B3X1iX2i + ei

1
2
Yi – Outcome for ith unit

4
B0 – Intercept coefficient
B1 – Effect 1 coefficient
B2 – Effect 2 coefficient
B3 – Interaction coefficient
X1i – Level of factor 1 for ith unit
X2i – Level of factor 2 for ith unit
ei – Error term for ith unit
 Analysis of Factorial Design
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• Main Effects – effects of each factor

2
independent of the remaining factors.

1
• Interaction Effects – 2- to n-way interaction

4
effects between all combinations of factors.
• Design provides a lot more information
than a single factor experiment with
potentially not much more work.
 Example
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1. Experimental units – 100 patients with

2
depression.

1
2. Set of factors – drug therapy (y/n) and

4
psychotherapy (y/n)
3. Rules - Randomly assign 25 patients to
each of the possible combinations in (2).
4. Measurement – Beck Depression Scale
 The Factorial Design
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• Factor vs factorial

2
• Types of arrangements like 2*2,3*4 etc

1
• 3*4 factorial means 2 factor, one at 3

4
levels, other at 4 .
 Summary - Full Factorial Designs
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• Allow the researcher to explore multiple

2
factors simultaneously.

1
• Hypothesis tests can be performed on not

4
only main effects, but all possible
interactions as well.
 Summary - Fractional Factorial Designs
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• Are useful in situations where a factorial

2
design is desired, but the number of

1
treatment levels required is prohibitively

4
high.
• Cost is the loss of the estimation of some or
all interaction effects.
 salesman
1 2 3 4

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east 65 30 50 20

1
2
70 35 65 40

4
west 30 60 20 50

35 55 25 40
 Anova: Two-Factor With
Replication
SUMMARY
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1
2
East 1 2 3 4 Total

4
Count 2 2 2 2 8
Sum 135 65 115 60 375
Average 67.5 32.5 57.5 30 46.875
Variance 12.5 12.5 112.5 200 342.4107
 WEST
0011 0010 1010 1101 0001 0100 1011

2
Count 2 2 2 2 8

1
4
Sum 65 115 45 90 315

Average 32.5 57.5 22.5 45 39.375

Variance 12.5 12.5 12.5 50 210.2679

 Total
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Count 4 4 4 4

1
2
Sum 200 180 160 150

4
Average 50 45 40 37.5

Variance 416.6667 216.6667 450 158.3333

 ANOVA TABLE
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Source of
Variation SS df MS F F crit

1
2
Sample 225 1 225 4.2352 5.3176

4
Columns 368.75 3 122.91 2.3137 4.0661
Interaction 3075 3 1025 19.294 4.0661
Within 425 8 53.125
Total 4093.7 15      
 Interpretation
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• Factor A –null hypothesis is accepted

2
hence there is no significance difference in

1
terms of quarterly sales between different

4
sales region
Factor B- null hypothesis is accepted
hence there is no significant difference in terms
of quarterly sales between different salesmen.
 Conclusion
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• Factor C- null hypothesis is rejected.

2
Hence there is a significant difference in

1
quarterly sales because of interaction

4
between factors sales region and sales
factor.