1800: The First Battery (Voltaic Pile)

1801: Volta presenting his

 2 CLASSES OF BATTERIES

PRIMARY CELLS

SECONDARY CELLS

PRIMARY CELLS
CANNOT BE RECHARGED
CHEMICAL PROCESS NOT REVERSABLE
ZINC CARBON (1.5V)
ALKALINE (1.5V)

SECONDARY CELLS
CAN BE RECHARGED
CHEMICAL REACTION REVERSABLE

LEAD ACID (2.0V)

NICKEL - CADMIUM (1.2V)
NICKEL - METAL HYDRIDE (1.2V)
LITHIUM ION (3.3V)

COMPOSITION OF A
BATTERY
The Lead Acid battery is made up of seperator plates, lead
plates, and lead oxide plates (various other elements are
used to change density, hardness, porosity, etc.) with a
35% sulphuric acid and 65% water solution. This solution
is called electrolyte which causes a chemical reaction that
produce electrons.
When a battery discharges the electrolyte dilutes and the
sulphur deposits on the lead plates.
When the battery is recharged the process reverses and the
sulphur dissolves into the electrolyte.

BATTERY CROSS SECTION

Battery (Ancient) History

1800
1836
1859
1868
1888
1898
1899

Voltaic pile: silver zinc

Daniell cell: copper zinc
Plant: rechargeable lead-acid cell
Leclanch: carbon zinc wet cell
Gassner: carbon zinc dry cell
Commercial flashlight, D cell
Junger: nickel cadmium cell

Battery History
1946
1960s
1970s
1990
1991
1992
1999

Neumann: sealed NiCd

Alkaline, rechargeable NiCd
Lithium, sealed lead acid
Nickel metal hydride (NiMH)
Lithium ion
Rechargeable alkaline
Lithium ion polymer

Battery Nomenclature

Duracell batteries

9v battery

6v dry cell

Two cells

A real battery

Another battery

More precisely

The Electrochemical Cell

e

consumer
salt bridge

oxidation
at zinc
anode

ZnSO4

CuSO 4

Half Cell I

Half Cell II

reduction
at copper
cathode

The Electrochemical Cell (2)

Zinc is (much) more easily oxidized than
Copper Zn Zn 2 2e ( I .)
Cu 2 2e Cu ( II .)

Maintain equilibrium electron densities

Add copper ions in solution to Half Cell II

Salt bridge only carries negative ions

This is the limiting factor for current flow
Pick a low-resistance bridge

The Electrochemical Series

Most wants to reduce
(gain electrons)

Gold
Mercury
Silver
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Cadmium

But, theres a reason

its a sodium drop

Iron
Zinc
Aluminum
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
Lithium

Most wants to oxidize

(lose electrons)

Battery Characteristics
Size
Physical: button, AAA, AA, C, D, ...
Energy density (watts per kg or cm3)

Longevity
Capacity (Ah, for drain of C/10 at 20C)
Number of recharge cycles

Discharge characteristics (voltage drop)

Further Characteristics
Cost
Behavioral factors
Temperature range (storage, operation)
Self discharge
Memory effect

Environmental factors
Leakage, gassing, toxicity
Shock resistance

Primary (Disposable) Batteries

Zinc carbon (flashlights, toys)

Heavy duty zinc chloride (radios, recorders)
Alkaline (all of the above)
Lithium (photoflash)
Silver, mercury oxide (hearing aid, watches)
Zinc air

Silver Oxide/Zn cell

A silver-oxide battery is a Primary cell
with a very high energy/weight ratio.
Available either in small sizes button cells
(where the amount of silver used is minimal
and not a significant contributor to the
product cost)

Silver Oxide/Zn cell

A silver-oxide battery uses silver oxide as the positive electrode (cathode
),
zinc as the negative electrode (anode)
plus an alkaline electrolyte, usually sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or
potassium hydroxide (KOH).
The silver is reduced at the cathode from Ag(I) to Ag and the zinc is
oxidized from Zn to Zn(II).
The chemical reaction that takes place inside the battery is the following
.

Ag(I) + e Ag Reduction
Zn Zn(II) Oxidation

Silver Oxide/Zn cell

Diagram

Zn-air cell

Zn-air cell
Zincair batteries (non-rechargeable),
and zincair fuel cells are metal-air batteries
powered by oxidizing zinc with oxygen from the air.
These batteries have high energy densities and are
relatively inexpensive to produce. Sizes range from
very small button cells for hearing aids, larger
batteries used in film cameras that previously used
mercury batteries, to very large batteries used for
electric vehicle propulsion.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY
the chemical equations for the zincair cell:
Anode: Zn + 4OH Zn(OH)42 + 2e
Cathode: 1/2 O2 + H2O + 2e 2OH
Overall: 2Zn + O2 2ZnO
Zincair batteries cannot be used in a sealed
battery holder since some air must come in; the
oxygen in 1 liter of air is required for every amperehour of capacity used.

Ni Metal Hydride Baterry

A nickelmetal hydride battery,
abbreviated NiMH or NiMH, is a type of
rechargeable battery.
Its chemical reactions are somewhat similar to the
nickelcadmium cell (NiCd).
NiMH use positive electrodes of nickel oxyhydroxide
(NiOOH)
but the negative electrodes use a hydrogen-absorbing
alloy instead of cadmium, being in essence a practical
application of nickelhydrogen battery chemistry.
A NiMH battery can have two to three times the capacity
of an equivalent size NiCd,
and their energy density approaches that of a
lithium-ion cell.

Elecrochemistry
The negative electrode reaction occurring in a
NiMH cell is:
H2O + M + e OH + MH
The charge reaction is read left-to-right and
the discharge reaction is read right-to-left.
On the positive electrode, nickel
oxyhydroxide, NiO(OH), is formed:
Ni(OH)2 + OH NiO(OH) + H2O + e

applications
Applications of NiMH electric vehicle batteries include allelectric plug-in vehicles such as the General Motors EV1,
Honda EV Plus, Ford Ranger EV and Vectrix scooter.
Hybrid vehicles such as the Toyota Prius,
Honda Insight, Ford Escape Hybrid, Chevrolet Malibu Hybrid,
and Honda Civic Hybrid also use them.
NiMH technology is used extensively in rechargeable batteries
for consumer electronics like robotic vacuum cleaners of
iRobot Roomba, and it will also be used on the Alstom Citadis
low floor tram ordered for Nice, France;
as well as the humanoid prototype robot ASIMO designed by
Honda. NiMH batteries are also commonly used in remote
control cars.

Diagram

Li-ion baterry

lithium-ion battery
A lithium-ion battery (sometimes Li-ion battery or
LIB) is a member of a family of rechargeable battery
types in which lithium ions move from the negative
electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and
back when charging. Li-ion batteries .
The electrolyte which allows for ionic movement, and the
two electrodes are the consistent components of a
lithium-ion cell.

electrochemistry

Li-ion baterry

Li/MnO2 Cell

Li MnO2 battery
At anode:
Li
Li+ + e At cathode:
Mn(IV)O2 + Li+ + e- Mn(III)O2(Li+)

Phosphoric acid fuel cell

Phosphoric acid fuel cell

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) are a
type of fuel cell that uses liquid phosphoric
acid as an electrolyte. They were the first
fuel cells to be commercialized. Developed
in the mid-1960s and field-tested since the
1970s, they have improved significantly in
stability, performance, and cost. Such
characteristics have made the PAFC a good
candidate for early stationary applications.

Lead acid battery

Reserve batterylong storage.
Lead-perchloric acid and
lead-hydrobouric acid

Lead acid battery

An automotive battery is a type of
rechargeable battery that supplies electric
energy to an automobile.
Lead-acid batteries are made up of plates of
lead and separate plates of lead dioxide,
which are submerged into an electrolyte
solution of about 38% sulfuric acid and 62%
water.

Lead acid battery

reactions

Standard Zinc Carbon Batteries

Chemistry
Zinc (-), manganese dioxide (+)
Zinc, ammonium chloride aqueous electrolyte

Features
+ Inexpensive, widely available
Inefficient at high current drain
Poor discharge curve (sloping)
Poor performance at low temperatures

Heavy Duty Zinc Chloride Batteries

Chemistry
Zinc (-), manganese dioxide (+)
Zinc chloride aqueous electrolyte

Features (compared to zinc carbon)

+ Better resistance to leakage
+ Better at high current drain
+ Better performance at low temperature

Standard Alkaline Batteries

Chemistry
Zinc (-), manganese dioxide (+)
Potassium hydroxide aqueous electrolyte

Features
+ 50-100% more energy than carbon zinc
+ Low self-discharge (10 year shelf life)
Good for low current (< 400mA), long-life use
Poor discharge curve

Alkaline-Manganese Batteries (2)

Lithium Manganese Dioxide

Chemistry
Lithium (-), manganese dioxide (+)
Alkali metal salt in organic solvent electrolyte

Features
+ High energy density
+ Long shelf life (20 years at 70C)
+ Capable of high rate discharge
Expensive

Lithium v Alkaline Discharge

Secondary (Rechargeable)
Batteries

Nickel cadmium
Nickel metal hydride
Alkaline
Lithium ion
Lithium ion polymer
Lead acid

Nickel Cadmium Batteries

Chemistry
Cadmium (-), nickel hydroxide (+)
Potassium hydroxide aqueous electrolyte

Features
+ Rugged, long life, economical
+ Good high discharge rate (for power tools)
Relatively low energy density
Toxic

NiCd Recharging
Over 1000 cycles (if properly maintained)
Fast, simple charge (even after long storage)
C/3 to 4C with temperature monitoring

Self discharge
10% in first day, then 10%/mo
Trickle charge (C/16) will maintain charge

Memory effect
Overcome by 60% discharges to 1.1V

Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries

Chemistry
LaNi5, TiMn2, ZrMn2 (-), nickel hydroxide (+)
Potassium hydroxide aqueous electrolyte

Features
+ Higher energy density (40%) than NiCd
+ Nontoxic
Reduced life, discharge rate (0.2-0.5C)
More expensive (20%) than NiCd

NiMH Recharging
Less prone to memory than NiCd
Shallow discharge better than deep
Degrades after 200-300 deep cycles
Need regular full discharge to avoid crystals

Self discharge 1.5-2.0 more than NiCd

Longer charge time than for NiCd
To avoid overheating

Secondary Alkaline Batteries

Features
50 cycles at 50% discharge
No memory effect
Shallow discharge better than deeper

NiCd v Alkaline Discharge

Lead Acid Batteries

Chemistry
Lead
Sulfuric acid electrolyte

Features
+ Least expensive
+ Durable
Low energy density
Toxic

Lead Acid Recharging

Low self-discharge
40% in one year (three months for NiCd)

No memory
Cannot be stored when discharged
Limited number of full discharges
Danger of overheating during charging

Lead Acid Batteries

Ratings
CCA: cold cranking amps (0F for 30 sec)
RC: reserve capacity (minutes at 10.5v, 25amp)

Deep discharge batteries

Used in golf carts, solar power systems
2-3x RC, 0.5-0.75 CCA of car batteries
Several hundred cycles

Lithium Ion Batteries

Chemistry
Graphite (-), cobalt or manganese (+)
Nonaqueous electrolyte

Features
+ 40% more capacity than NiCd
+ Flat discharge (like NiCd)
+ Self-discharge 50% less than NiCd
Expensive

Lithium Ion Recharging

300 cycles
50% capacity at 500 cycles

Lithium Ion Polymer Batteries

Chemistry
Graphite (-), cobalt or manganese (+)
Nonaqueous electrolyte

Features
+ Slim geometry, flexible shape, light weight
+ Potentially lower cost (but currently expensive)
Lower energy density, fewer cycles than Li-ion

Battery Capacity
Type

Capacity
(mAh)

Density
(Wh/kg)

Alkaline AA
Rechargeable
NiCd AA

2850
1600
750

124
80
41

NiMH AA

1100

51

Lithium ion

1200

100

Lead acid

2000

30

Discharge Rates
Type

Voltage

Peak Optimal
Drain
Drain

Alkaline
NiCd

1.5
1.25

0.5C
20C

< 0.2C
1C

Nickel metal

1.25

5C

< 0.5C

5C

0.2C

3.6

2C

< 1C

Lead acid
Lithium ion

Recharging
Type

Cycles Charge Discharge Cost per

(to 80%)
time per month
kWh

Alkaline

50 (50%)

3-10h

0.3%

$95.00

NiCd
NiMH

1500
300-500

1h
2-4h

20%
30%

$7.50
$18.50

Li-ion

500-1000

2-4h

10%

$24.00

300-500

2-4h

10%

Lead acid 200-2000

8-16h

5%

Polymer

$8.50

Lithium-ion Batteries in
Notebooks
Lithium: greatest electrochemical potential,
lightest weight of all metals
But, Lithium metal is explosive
So, use Lithium-{cobalt, manganese, nickel}
dioxide

Overcharging would convert lithium-x

dioxide to metallic lithium, with risk of
explosion

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