Introduction to Machine

Design
Objective
Field of activities in Machine
Design

What is machine design?

Application of science and technology to

device new or improved products

Product is any manufactured item including

machine, structure, tool and instruments.

People who design are called design

engineers.

What is Good Design?

Activity

done

by

engineers

(includes

technologists) to create devices, structures,

processes to fill a need
Problem solving
Optimization
Cost containment/ reduction
System analysis

Definition of Engineering
..that

profession in which knowledge of the

mathematical and natural sciences gained by

study, experience and practice is applied with
judgement

to

economically,

develop
the

ways

materials

to

and

nature for the benefit of the mankind.

utilise,

forces

of

What is Machine Design?

Creation of new and better machines AND
Improving

existing ones

So that it is economical in the cost of production

and operation.

Background for Machine Design

Technical drawing

Kinematics
Mechanics
Materials engineering
Strength of materials
Manufacturing processes

Market
survey

How a design is born

Aesthetic
marketability
Ease of
handling

Requirement

Availability of
FUNDS

Creation

Safety
Economical

Model
(Rough idea)

Available
material

Recyclability

Manufacturing
resources
Analysis

Force/stress

Material/s
used

Sizes

Philosophy of Machine Design

Requires fundamentals of knowledge

No memorisation of formulae or tables of

Data
Build upon old ideas
Be innovative and search for ideas

Check list for Designers

Does it satisfy the need?
Will it be competitive?
Is it economical to produce?
Can it be readily maintained?
Will it sell and make a profit?

Major areas in Machine Design

Initial design conception
Strength analysis
Material selection
Appearance
Manufacturability

Major areas in Machine Design

Economy
Safety
Environmental effects
Reliability and life
Legal consideration

Design process elements

Decide on a number alternatives
Evaluate each alternative and discard the
unsatisfactory ones
Choose the optimum one from the Alternatives
Implement the design

General procedure in Machine

Need or
Recognize and specify the
Design
aim

problem

Select the mechanism that would give the

desired motion and form the basic model with
a sketch etc
Analysis of the FORCES
Synthesis

Material selection
Design of elements

Determine the stresses and thereby

the sizes of components s.t. failure or
deformation does not occur

Modificatio
n
Detailed
drawing

Production

Design
Strength/stress
Considerations
Deflection/stiffness
Wear
Corrosion
Safety
Reliability
Friction
Usability
Utility
Cost
Processing

Material Properties
Yield strength
Ultimate strength
Modulus of Elasticity
Ductility
Thermal expansion

The Design Process

The design process is achieve by
following 10 stages.
1-Identify the problem/product
innovation
2-Define the working criteria/goals
3-Research and gather data
4-Brainstorm / generate creative ideas
5-Analyze potential solutions

The Design Process

continue

6-Develop and test models

7-Make the decision
8-Communication and specify
9-Implement and commercialize
10-Perform post-implementation
review and assessment

Stage -1: Identifying the

problem/product innovation
Engineers are problem solver: and
the problems they solve are often
identified as the specific needs and
problems of customers
Example:
increased gas mileage
Safety devices for kid, monitors, etc..

Stage 2: Define the working criteria

and goals
How much will it cost?
Will it be difficult to produce?
What will be the size, weight,
strength?
What will it look like?
Will it be easy to use?
Are there legal concerns?
Will it be reliable?

Stage 2: Define the working criteria

and goals
Continue

Will it meet the EPA standard?

Is this what the customer truly
wanted?
Will our customers want to purchase
it?
Will customers want to purchase this
version instead of a competitors
product?
Is it feasible for our customer to buy

Stage 3: Research and

gather data
What information has been published
about the problem?
Is there a solution to the problem
that already may be available?
If the answer to the above is yes,
who is producing it?
What are the advantages of their
solution?
What are the disadvantages to their
solution?

Stage 3: Research and

gather data
Continue

What is the cost?

Is cost significant issue?
What is the ratio of time compared to
overall cost?
Are there legal issues to consider?
Are there environmental concerns
which must be considered?

Stage 3: Research and

gather data
Continue

Information can be obtained

Libraries
Professional Society
Journal, publications and newsletter
Newspapers and magazines
Market assessment surveys

Stage 3: Research and

gather data
Continue

Government publications
Patent searches and listings
Technical salespersons and their
references catalogs
Professional experts including researchers,
professors and other scientists
The competitions product (how they
designed it? Disassemble their product and
study it

Stage 4: Brainstorm / Generate

creative ideas
Creative problem solving is a major
method of generating multiple ideas
to a problem by a technique called
brainstorming
No preliminary judgments are made
about any members idea, and no
negative comments are allowed
The goal here is to list as many ideas
as possible

Stage 5: Analyze potential

solutions

Computer analysis technique

Analysis of compatibility
Consistency of testing
Estimation
Economic analysis
Common sense
Analysis using basic engineering
principles and laws

Stage 6: Develop and test

models

Mathematical models
Computer models
Scale model
Diagrams or graphs
Durability
Ease assembly

Stage 6: Develop and test

models
Continue

Reliability
Strength
Environmental
Quality consistency
Safety

Stage 7: Make the decision

Cost Point Available

#1
#2
Production Difficulty 20 17 15
Size, weight, strength 15 8 12
Appearance 10 7 8
Convenient to use 5 3 3
Safety 10 7 8
Legal issues 5 4 3
Reliability/Durability 15 9 11
Recyclability 5 4 2
Customer Appeal 10 8 9

Stage 8:Communication and specify

Communicate data and design for
each specific solution and get input

Stage 9:Implement and

commercialize
Implement the best solution
Apply methods of business to for
profit

Stage 10:Perform postimplementation review and

assessment
Check if the final product is giving
you what you actually wanted from
feasibility and if the consumer like
it, etc.

FITS, TOLERANCES AND LIMITS

Fit

is the general term used to signify the range of

tightness or looseness that may result from the
application of a specific combination of allowances
and tolerances in mating parts.

TYPES OF FITS
There are four types of fits between parts
1.

Clearance Fit

2.

Interference fit

3.

Transition fit

4.

Line fit

1.

Clearance Fit: an internal member fits in an

external member (as a shaft in a hole) and always
leaves a space or clearance between the parts.

Minimum air space is 0.002. This is the allowance and

is always positive in a clearance fit.

2.

Interference Fit: The internal member is larger

than the external member such that there is
always an actual interference of material. The
smallest shaft is 1.2513 and the largest hole is
1.2506, so that there is an actual interference of
metal amounting to at least 0.0007. Under
maximum material conditions the interference
would

be

0.0019.

This

interference

is

the

allowance, and in an interference fit it is always

negative.

3.

Transition Fit: may result in either a clearance or

interference condition. In the figure below, the
smallest shaft 1.2503 will fit in the largest hole
1.2506, with 0.003 to spare. But the largest
shaft, 1.2509 will have to be forced into the
smallest hole, 1.2500 with an interference of
metal of 0.009.

4.

Line Fit: the limits of size are so specified that a

clearance or surface contact may result when
mating parts are assembled.

LIMITS:
The maximum and minimum permissible sizes within
which the actual size of a component lies are called
TOLERANCE:
Limits.
It is impossible to make anything to an exact size,
therefore it is essential to allow a definite tolerance
or permissible variation on every specified dimension.
TYPES:
Unilateral Tolerance
Bilateral Tolerance

UNILATERAL TOLERANCE:
Tolerances on a dimension may either be unilateral
or bilateral.
When the two limit dimensions are only on one side
of the nominal size, (either above or below) the
tolerances are said to be unilateral.
For unilateral tolerances, a case may occur when
one of the limits coincide with the basic size.

BILATERAL TOLERANCE:
When the two limit dimensions are above and below
nominal size,
(i.e. on either side of the nominal size) the tolerances
are said to be bilateral.
Unilateral tolerances, are preferred over bilateral
because the operator can machine to the upper limit
of the shaft (or lower limit of a hole) still having the
whole tolerance left for
machining to avoid rejection of parts.

SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF
TOLERANCE

EXAMPLE

LIMITS
Limits of size: The two extreme permissible sizes of a
component between which the
actual size should lie including the maximum and
minimum sizes of the component.
Nominal size: It is the size of the component by which
it is referred to as a matter of
convenience.
Basic size: It is the size of a part in relation to which all
limits of variation are
determined.
Zero Line: It is the line w.r.t which the positions of

Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between a limit

of size and the corresponding basic size.
Upper Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between
the maximum limit of size and the corresponding basic
size. It is denoted by letters ES for a hole and es for a
shaft.
Lower Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between
the minimum limit of size and the corresponding basic
size. It is denoted by letters EI for a hole and ei for a
shaft.
Fundamental Deviation: It is the deviation, either upper
or lower deviation, which is nearest to the zero line for

Allowance: It is the intentional difference between

the hole dimensions and shaft dimension for any
type of fit.
Size of tolerance: It is the difference between the
maximum and minimum limits of size.

SYSTEM OF FITS
Fit is an assembly condition between Hole &
Shaft
Hole: A feature engulfing a component.
Shaft:

component.

feature

being

engulfed

by

CLEARANCE FIT: In this type of fit, the largest

permitted shaft diameter is less than the smallest
hole diameter so that the shaft can rotate or slide
according to the purpose of the assembly.

Interference Fit:
It is defined as the fit established when a negative
clearance exists between the sizes of holes and the
shaft. In this type of fit, the minimum permitted
diameter of the shaft is larger than the maximum
allowable diameter of the hole. In case of this type of
fit, the members are intended to be permanently
attached.
Ex: Bearing bushes, Keys & key ways

TRANSITION
diameter

FIT:

of

the

In

this

largest

type

of

allowable

fit,
hole

the
is

greater than the smallest shaft, but the smallest

hole is smaller than the largest shaft, such that a
small positive or negative clearance exists between
the shaft & hole.
Ex: Coupling rings, Spigot in mating holes, etc.

FIT SYSTEM
When two mating parts fit with each other, the nature
of fit is dependent on the limits of tolerances and
fundamental deviations of the mating parts.
There are two ways of representing a system.
The Hole Basis
The Shaft Basis.
Basic shaft: It is a shaft whose upper deviation is
zero. i.e. the maximum limit of shaft coincides with the
nominal size.(zero line).
Eg: shaft h
Basic hole: It is a hole whose lower deviation is zero.
i.e. the minimum limit of hole coincides with the

International Tolerance Grade (IT):

They are a set of tolerances that varies according to

the basic size and provides a uniform level of accuracy
within the grade.

Tolerance symbols are used to specify the tolerance

and fits for mating parts. For the hole-basis system ,the
50

indicates

the

diameter

in

millimeters;

the

fundamental deviation for the hole is indicated by the

capital letter H, and for the shaft it is indicated by the
lowercase letter f. The numbers following the letters
indicate this IT grade. Note that the symbols for the hole
and shaft are separated by the slash. Tolerance symbols
for a 50-mm-diameter hole may be given in several
acceptable

forms.

The

values

reference only and may be omitted.

in

parentheses

for

Hole Basis: In this system, the basic diameter of

the hole is constant while the shaft size is varied
according to the type of fit.
Significance of Hole basis system: The bureau
of Indian Standards (BIS) recommends both hole
basis and shaft basis systems, but their selection
depends on the production methods. Generally, holes
are produced by drilling, boring, reaming, broaching,
etc.
whereas shafts are either turned or ground.
If the shaft basis system is used to specify the limit
dimensions to obtain various types of fits, number of

If the hole basis system is used, there will be reduction

in production costs as only one tool is required to
produce the ole and the shaft can be easily machined
to any desired size. Hence hole basis system is

Shaft Basis system:

In this system, the basic diameter of the shaft is
constant while the hole size is varied according to the
type of fit.
It may, however, be necessary to use shaft basis
system where different fits are required along a long
shaft.
For example, in the case of driving shafts where a single
shaft may have to accommodate to a variety of
accessories such as couplings, bearings, collars, etc., it
is preferable to maintain a constant diameter for the
permanent member, which is the shaft, and vary the
bore of the accessories.

PREFERRED NUMBERS
A designed product needs standardization. It means
that some of its important specified parameter should
be common in nature. For example, the sizes of the
ingots available in the market have standard sizes. A
manufacturer does not produce ingots of sizes of his
wish, he follows a definite pattern and for that matter
designer can choose the dimensions from those
standard available sizes. Motor speed, engine power
of a tractor, machine tool speed and feed, all follow a
definite

pattern

or

series.

This

also

helps

in

interchangeability of products. It has been observed

that if the sizes are put in the form of geometric

Depending on the common ratio, four basic series are

formed; these are R5 , R10 , R20 and R40 . These are
named as Renard series. Many other derived series are
formed by multiplying or dividing the basic series by
10, 100 etc.
Typical values of the common ratio for four basic G.P.
series are given below.