Pumping of

Liquids
Chris Finch

Pump Selection And Design

What type of pump for what duty, centrifugal

v positive displacement etc.

Sizing

Includes producing system curve, pump laws,

calculating NPSH, minimum flow recycle,
controlling flow by variable speed or control
valves. How to size control valves.

and selection of centrifugal pumps.

NPSH Net Positive Suction Head

Useful Texts
C&R Series Volume 6 Sinott & Towler
C&R Series Volume 1
Sulzer Centrifugal Pump HandbookSulzer Engineering Company
Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings
& Pipe - Crane Valve Company
Perrys Chemical Engineering
Handbook

Why Include Pumping Of

Liquids?
They

are one of the main work horses of

chemical plants
A distillation column will have a minimum
of three process pump duties
Will be more for more complicated for
columns with side streams, multiple feeds
etc.
Will be utility pump requirements as well
If one of the pumps is not running the
column will not operate.

Two Main Classes Of

Pumps
Centrifugal
Positive

Displacement

Positive Displacement
Pumps
Can

be classed as either
Reciprocating

Piston,
Diaphragm

Rotary

Gear or Rotary Lobe

Progressive Cavity
Peristaltic

Centrifugal Pump Types

There

are many different types

Often Characterised by Impellor
Design
Multi-Stage Centrifugal Pumps
often used for high pressure duties
Will not look at most mechanical
aspects
Will discuss shaft sealing methods
later

Typical Centrifugal Pump Q/H Curve

60
50
40

H (m)
30
20
10
0
0

50

100

150

Q (m3/h)

200

250

300

Typical PD (Rotary Lobe) Pump Q/H Curve

60

50

40

H (m)

30

20

10

0
0

50

100

150
Q (m3/h)

200

250

300

Viscosity Units
Kinematic Viscosity = (nu)
1CSt = 10-2 St = 10-6 m2/s
St = Stoke
Dynamic Viscosity = (mu)
1cP=10-2 P= 10-3 kg/ms=10-3 Pa.s
P = Poise

Kinematic Viscosity=Dynamic
Viscosity/Density

Will Deal With Mainly Newtonian Fluids

Effect of Viscosity on Q/H Curve

60

50

40
Centrifugal 1CSt
Centrifugual 120 CSt

H (m)

Centrifugal 1200 CSt

30

Rotary Lobe 1 CSt

Rotary Lobe 120 CSt
Rotary Lobe 1200 CSt

20

10

0
0

50

100

150

Q (m3/h)

200

250

300

Effect of Viscosity on
Centrifugal Pumps
Increasing Viscosity degrades
performance
Normal Maximum Economic Viscosity
is 150 to 500 CSt.
Can use up to 1000 CSt Viscosity
Tendency now is to push viscosity
limit for centrifugal pumps as they
give smooth flows, easy to control,
simpler design.

Effect of Viscosity on Positive

Displacement Pumps
Decreasing

Viscosity degrades
performance
To pump 1 CSt materials many PD
pumps require space between pump
body and rotors to be very small (tight
clearances)
PD pumps can be designed to handle
viscosities of several million CSt.

Centrifugal Pump

Pump Affinity Laws

Centrifugal Pumps
Q

= Volumetric Flow
N = Impellor Speed revolution per
minute
D = Impellor Diameter
H= Differential Head or Pressure
P= Power Consumption
Assume

pump geometry impellor

design etc. is unchanged

 Volume

Q1/Q2=(N1/N2)(D1/D2)

Head

or Pressure

H1/H2=(N1/N2)2(D1/D2)2

Power
P1/P2=(N1/N2)3(D1/D2)3

Assumes

pump and impellor design

do not change! Centrifugal Pumps
only.

Example of Pump Laws

Example

of increasing speed from

1450 to 2000 rpm for centrifugal
pump curve shown earlier
Impellor diameter is constant
Important to remember that you
must modify all values.

Volume Q1/Q2=(N1/N2)
Head H1/H2=(N1/N2)2
H 1450

Q 1450

H 2000

Q1450

48

91.3

47

50

89.4

69

45

100

85.6

137.9

40.8

150

77.6

206.9

35

200

66.6

275.9

26

250

49.5

344.8

Curve modified to increase pump speed

100
90

N=2000 rpm

80
70

H (m)

60
50
40
30
20

N=1450 rpm

10
0
0

50

100

150

200

Q (m3/h)

250

300

350

400

Head v Pressure
Centrifugal

Pumps Generate Head

of Liquid
A Given Pump With A Given Speed
and Impellor Diameter Will Raise a
Liquid to a Certain Height
Regardless of The Density of The
Liquid
Denser Liquid Will Require Higher
Power

Power Required
Power

Transferred to Liquid=
Q*H**g - Watts
Q=Volumetric Flow l/s
H=Head - m
=Density kg/l
g=Acceleration due to Gravity 9.81 m/s 2
Divide

by pump efficiency to get drive

power required

Typical Centrifugal Pump Curves

Unless

otherwise stated curves will be for

water
Besides the Q/H Curve already seen will
contain additional information
Q/H curves for different impellor sizes, the
largest and impellor size fitted to that
pump body and possible intermediate
impellor sizes.
Pump efficiency lines can be

contours connecting points of same efficiency

single line efficiency V flow for given impellor
size

Information on Minimum Flow required

The lowest flow that the pump can operate at

without being damaged
If the lowest flow is to prevent overheating then
flow will need adjustment for different liquid
specific heats.
Sometimes lowest flow condition is for
mechanical reasons

Power Curves

Can be shown as a curve for a given impellor

diameter, if only one power curve shown this will
be for the largest impellor.
A series of curves of fixed power which cross the
Q/H curves
This power shown account for efficiency, basically
can be used to size motor kW required

 NPSHr

This stands for Net Positive

Suction Head Required
Units will normally be in Absolute
Meters of Fluid
Occasionally if the curve is
calculated for a specific liquid may
be in pressure units typically
mBarA.
It is the minimum net pressure
required at the pump inlet nozzle
to prevent the pump cavitating.

Best Efficiency Point BEP

This is the best point typically for pumps to

operate
It will sometimes be marked on curve for
each impellor size
Otherwise determine from efficiency curves

End of Curve Conditions

Avoid operating at the right end of the pump

curve
NPSHr increases greatly.
The drive system is likely to become
overloaded because of increased power
consumption
One common cause is starting pump with
empty discharge line and no flow restriction.

Simplified
Curve For
Illustration
No
Minimum
Flow
Information

Impellor Diameter

Min Flow
BEP

Cavitation
This occurs when the pressure falls to
such a level that the liquid in the pump
boils. NPSHa<NPSHr
It is a serious issue in all centrifugal
pumps
If a centrifugal or rotating PD pump is
operated in this condition for more than
a few minutes will cause sever damage.
Cavitation also causes a reduction in
pump differential head.

Shape of Pump Curves

There are different types of pump curves
most common are:
Flat
Steep
Unstable
You are more likely to go down the list as
pump speed increases
This is important in selecting right pump
especially for multiple pump operation.
There are others types.

Flat Curve
60

H (m)

40
20
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Q (m3/h)

Step Curve

Unstable Curve

60

60

40

20
0
0

40
20

50

100

150

200

250

300

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

System Curve

This is a plot of Q v H for flow through

the system which the pump operates

H means total frictional and static

pressure drop in pipe and fittings

If you plot together with the system

pressure drop curve where they cross
is where the pump will operate.
You can change the intersection by
either changing pump curve or
changing system curve.

70

Pump and System Q/H Curve

60

System
Curve

Operating Point

50
40
H (m)
30
20

Pump Curve

10
0
0

50

100

150

Q (m3/h)

200

250

300

Calculating System Curve

Pd =
Destination
Pressure

Po = Origin
Pressure

Discharge Pipework
Hd =
Destination
Static Head

Inlet Pipework

Ho = Origin
Static Head
Datum Level

 Normally

you will be pumping uphill

and/or from low to high pressure
This will not always be the case if the
distances involved are large.
Need to decide what units to plot your
graph in.
It is normally best to convert
everything to the same units as your
pump curve, normally this will be
meters of fluid being pumped
1bar= 105 Pascals = 10.197 * Head
(M)/SG

SG specific gravity relative to water

Pressure Profile
Discharge
Pipework P

Pump P
Po =
Origin
Pressure

Pd =
Destination
Pressure

Ho = Origin
Static Head

Hd =
Destination
Static Head

Inlet
Pipework P

Datum

Distance

 Pump

P=

(Pd + Hd) (Po+Ho) + (Discharge

Pipework P) +
(Inlet Pipework P)
Pd,Hd,Po and Ho will be fixed so we
find the flow Q which will make
equation balance.
The pump curve we will get from
manufacturers data, although we can
modify using pump affinity laws.
The pipework pressure drop we will
calculate at different flows.
Frictional Pressure drop Increases
with Flow

Calculating Pressure Drop in Pipes

This

is shown in may of the texts

Crane Technical Paper 410 (SI units)
is recommended
An important paper is

Friction Factors for Pipe Flow

Lewis F Moody
Transactions of ASME November
1944

Darcy Equation
Liquid flow in pipes

Head Loss hL= fLv2/D2g

hL = pressure loss meters of fluid

f = friction factor (Darcy)
L= Pipe Length meters
v= fluid velocity meters per second
D = pipe diameter meters
G = acceleration due to gravity 9.81m/s2

Expressed as a pressure in Pascals

P=fLv2/2D

=fluids density kg/m3

Friction Factors
Be

wary of different friction factors

Most widely used is Darcy or Moody
friction factor
C&R Vol 1 also use Fanning Friction Factor
I will use Darcy/Moody Friction Factor
Moody Friction Factor = 4xFanning FF
There others as well!
If you use other fiction factors they will
use modified Darcy equation

Pipe Roughness

In the laminar region pipe roughness

has no effect on friction factor
In the transition and turbulent
regions then the roughness of pipe
effects friction factor
Be wary if Re is between 2000 and
4000, flow is unstable so pressure
drop calculations are less reliable.
Pipe roughness is shown as e/D
D is the diameter of pipe
e is absolute roughness
Make sure units are the same!

The

Darcy Equation may be

used for liquids
It is not true for gases or two
phase flow
The main issue in using Darcy
Equation is finding the value for
the friction factor!
In the Laminar Flow Region
Re<2000
f=64/Re

Typical Absolute Roughness

Pipe Description

Absolute
Roughnes
s mm

Drawn Tubing

0.001524

PTFE Lined

0.001524

Polyethylene

0.021336

Polypropylene

0.021336

Epoxy Coated Steel

0.00762

New Steel

0.01778

Commercial Steel

0.04572

Stainless Steel

0.04572

Galavnised Steel

0.1524

Cast Iron

0.25908

Concrete

2.54

 Friction

Factor is given by Colebrook-White

Equation

SwameeJain

equation (an approximation of

the implicit ColebrookWhite equation)
Use in Turbulent Region

(Swamee, P.K.; Jain, A.K. (1976). "Explicit equations for pipe-flow problems". Journal of the Hydraulics
Division (ASCE) 102 (5): 657664)

Moody Chart
Rather

than solve the equations

you can read from plots
A number are available:
One covering all pipe types based
on e/D
One for clean commercial steel
based on pipe diameters

Pipe Sizes
Since

pressure drop is proportional

to roughly the 5th power of pipe
diameter must get it right!
Steel pipes are made to AINSI B36
and equivalent European standards
they are the same
The standards give a Nominal Pipe
Size referred to as NB (Nominal
Bore) this will be in inches in AINSI
and mm in European standards.

Pipe Sizes contd.

There

are different thickness of pipes

normally called schedule
These will be used for different pressure
requirements.
For each Nominal Bore there is a defined
outside diameter
For each schedule and NB there is a defined
wall thickness
This allows determination of pipe internal
diameter to use in pressure drop calculations
There are tables of pipe dimensions in the
texts

Pipe size example internal diameters in mm

NB Inch

NB mm

Sched.
40

Sched.
80

Sched.1
60

25

26.6

24.3

20.7

80

77.9

73.7

66.6

150

154.1

146.4

131.8

10

250

254.5

242.8

215.8

18

450

428.7

409.6

366.7

24

600

574.6

547.7

490.5

If you use 25 mm instead of 26.6 mm for

sched. 40 1 pipe pressure drop will be
over 30% to high!

Example 1 Pressure Drop

Calculation Pipe Only
Calculate

the pressure drop for a

flow of 80,000 kg/h in a length of 50
m of 6 NB Pipe Schedule 40.
Liquid properties
Density 980 kg/m3
Dynamic Viscosity 1000 CP

Where do we start?
Calculate

velocity in pipe

Find Pipe ID
Calculate Volumetric Flow Rate
Pipe cross sectional area
Fluid velocity

Calculate

Reynolds number
Find Friction Factor
Substitute in Darcy Equation
P=fLv2/2D

Where do we start?
Calculate

velocity in pipe

Find Pipe
Calculate
Calculate
Calculate

Calculate

ID = 154.1 mm
Volumetric Flow Rate=81.63 m3/h
Pipe X sectional area = 0.1865m2
velocity = 1.216 m/s

Reynolds number=183.6
So Is Laminar Flow Region
Find Friction Factor = 64/Re = 0.3486
Substitute in Darcy Equation P=fLv2/2D
= 81907 pascals = 0.819 bar

Example 1 Answer Spreadsheet on

Blackboard
Viscosity
Density
Pipe ID
Flow
Pipe Length
Pipe X area
Volumetric flow
rate
Average fluid
Velocity

Calculate Re

1000 cp
980 kg/m3
154.1 mm
80000 Kg/h
50 m
0.01865
3 m2
81.6326
5 m3/h
4376.35
4 m/h
1.21565
4 m/s
183.585
6

Flow regime is
laminar
So f=64/Re

0.34861
1

Head Loss hL=

8.51980 M of

Example 2 Pressure Drop

Calculation Pipe Only
Calculate

the pressure drop for a

flow of 70,000 kg/h of water in a
length of 100 m of 80mm NB Pipe
Schedule 80, commercial steel pipe
Liquid properties
Density 1000 kg/m3
Dynamic Viscosity 1 CP

Where do we start?
Calculate

velocity in pipe

Find Pipe ID = 73.7 mm

Volumetric Flow Rate=70 m3/h
Calculate Pipe X sectional area =
0.00427m2
Calculate velocity = 4.5 m/s

Calculate

Reynolds number=335878
Find Friction Factor = How?

Obtaining correct pipe internal diameter

NB Inch

NB mm

Sched.
40

Sched.
80

Sched.1
60

25

26.6

24.3

20.7

80

77.9

73.7

66.6

150

154.1

146.4

131.8

10

250

254.5

242.8

215.8

18

450

428.7

409.6

366.7

24

600

574.6

547.7

490.5

Can see full list of ANSI B36 diameters in Crane

Appendix B16, or Perrys Table 10-22

 Find

absolute roughness
0.04572 mm
Calculate relative roughness
Absolute Roughness/Pipe Internal
Diameter
= 0.04572/73.7
=0.00062
Reynolds number=335878
F=??

 Find

friction factor from Moody

Chart
=0.019
Make sure you get decimal point in
correct place!
Substitute in Darcy Equation
P=fLv2/2D
=267772 Pascals
2.677 bar
=2.677x10.197=27.3 metres of
water

Example 2 Answer Spreadsheet on Blackboard

Viscosity
Density
Pipe ID
Flow
Pipe Length
Pipe X area
Volumetric flow rate
Average fluid Velocity

1 cp
1000 kg/m3
73.7 mm
70000 Kg/h
100 m
0.00427 m2
70 m3/h
16406.54 m/h
4.56 m/s

Calculate Re
Flow regime is turbulent
Absolute roughness
Relative roughness
Read f from chart
Head Loss hL= fLv2/D2g
P=fLv2/2D

335878.23
0.04572 mm
0.0006203
53
0.019
M of
27.291 fluid
267722.49
6 Pascals
2.677 Bar

Example Pump and System Curves

Simple

example
Only Consider Straight Pipe
Inlet Pipe 15 meters, 150 mm NB Sched
40
Discharge Pipe 100 meters, 100 mm NB
Sched. 40 Pipe
Origin Pressure Po = 1 Bara
Origin Static Head = 10 m
Destination Pressure = 2.5 Bara
Destination Static Head = 20 m
Fluid is water

Calculating System Curve

Pd =
Destination
Pressure

Po = Origin
Pressure

Discharge Pipework
Hd =
Destination
Static Head

Inlet Pipework

Ho = Origin
Static Head
Datum Level

 Assume

Viscosity is 1 CP and
density 1000 kg/m3
Notice inlet pipework is bigger
diameter than outlet
This is normal convention but not
absolutely required
Normally inlet flanges on pumps
are larger than discharge
For this example will work with all
pressures converted to meters of
water

 First

convert pressures to metes of

water

1 Bar =
Origin Pressure
Destination
Pressure

10.197meter water
1 Bar
2.5 Bar

10.197M
25.4925 M

Calculate System Differential Pressure at 0 Flow

Po+Ho
Pd+Hd
(Pd+Hd)-(Po+Ho)

10.197+10
25.4925+2
0

20.197M
45.4925M
25.2955M

Where do we start?
Calculate

velocity in pipe

Find Pipe ID
Calculate Volumetric Flow Rate
Pipe cross sectional area
Fluid velocity

Calculate

Reynolds number
Find Friction Factor
Substitute in Darcy Equation
P=fLv2/2D

 Remember

there are two

sections of pipe
Inlet 150 mm Nominal Bore
Outlet 100 mm Nominal Bore
Need to calculate pressure
drop due to friction in each
and add together
Do this at the different flows

Next calculate inlet and outlet

pressure drop at 50 M3/h
Calculate Inlet Pressure Drop at 50 m3/h

Calculate Outlet Pressure Drop at 50

m3/h

Viscosity

Viscosity

Density
Pipe ID
Flow
Pipe Length
Pipe X area
Volumetric flow rate
Average fluid Velocity

Calculate Re

1cp
kg/m
1000 3
154.1 mm
50000 Kg/h
15 m
0.01865 m2
50 m3/h
2680.52 m/h
0.74 m/s
114741.0
1

Flow regime is turbulent

Absolute roughness
Relative roughness

1cp
kg/m
1000 3

Density
Pipe ID

102.3 mm

Flow

50000 Kg/h

Pipe Length
Pipe X area
Volumetric flow
rate
Average fluid
Velocity

100m
0.00822 m2
50m3/h
6082.37 m/h
1.69m/s

Calculate Re

172840.57

Flow regime is turbulent

0.04572 mm
0.000296
69

Absolute roughness

0.04572 mm
0.0004469
Relative roughness
21

 Repeat

for flows of 100, 150, 200

m3/h
For

each flow calculate

(Pd+Hd)-(Po+Ho)+P

inlet + P

outlet
Ensure all units are consistent
Should

then have

 And

then plot against original pump

curve at start of pump lectures

Pump Q/H Curve For Example

60
50
40

H (m)
30
20
10
0
0

50

100

150

Q (m3/h)

200

250

300

60

Operating
Point

50

40

System Curve

30

Pump Curve
20

10

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Valves, Fittings, Etc.

Unfortunately

Pumping Systems Do
Not Only Contain Straight Pipe
Now need to have methods of
Calculating pressure Drops through
Other Components
These include Bends, Tees, Valves,
Flow Restrictors, Miscellaneous
Fittings

L/D Ratio or K Factor

See

Crane handbook
A simple but effective method for
many valves and fittings
K is known as resistance coefficient
or velocity head loss in the Darcy
Equation
Darcy Equation Head Loss hL=
fLv2/D2g
K is defined as = fL/D
Thus Head Loss hL= Kv2/2g

You will see K defined in two ways

Either as a straight forward K = Numerical
Value
Or K = Numerical Value * friction Factor
For example see Crane appendix A-29
For 90o Elbow K=30*f
If we substitute in h L= Kv2/2g
We have Head Loss in elbow h L= 30 fv2/2g
So simply to work out pressure drop for
elbow we can consider it as a length of
straight pipe given by
Equivalent Length of Elbow = 30* pipe
internal diameter
Or L/D=30 for an elbow

 Thus

if we have 10 meter of Sched.

40, 80 mm NB Pipe containing one
90o elbow
Internal Diameter of Pipe 77.9 mm
Equivalent length of elbow is
30 * Pipe ID =30*77.9 mm =
2337mm
=2.337m
So to calculate pressure drop we
treat it as a pipe of 10+2.337
m=12.337 m long

Bends Elbows and Tees

K

or equivalent lengths for pipe fittings

can be found in Crane, C&R Vol 6 and
other texts.
They do differ slightly most industrial
companies use the factors in Crane
Previously we mention elbows these
are not often used in piping systems
Bends are normally characterised by r/d
r=radius of centreline of bend
d= Pipe internal diameter

Exit and Entry Losses

On

the earlier slide you could see

that for pipe entry and exits:
K=1 for an exit
K of 0.5 is typically used for entry it
does vary with pipe geometry but
0.5 is best if details unknown.
In this case Head Loss hL= Kv2/2g
Do

not convert to equivalent pipe

length

Valves
We will look at instrumented control
valves later
If possible it is best to get
manufacturers pressure drop data
K factors are given for typical valves in
Crane
Ball valves are normally reduced bore ie
the diameter of ball orifice is less than
the pipe typically this gives K=14f
Sometimes you use full bore ball valves
more expensive but less pressure drop.

 Non

return valves have high

pressure drop - manufacturers data
is best.
Globe valves also have high
pressure drop even when fully
open. This is because they are the
type of valve most often used for
control.

Control Valves
Manufacturers

information is excellent
I will place Fisher control valve handbook on
blackboard
Or can find at :
http://www.documentation.emersonprocess.c
om/groups/public/documents/book/cvh99.pdf
In this sense control valves mean
instrumented control valves that can be
accurately positioned by an instrument signal
This signal is normally 0.2 to 1 barg (315psig)

Pressure Drop in Control Valves

Pressure

Drop in control valve is

characterised by Flow Coefficient - Cv
Cv= Flow in US gpm of water at 60 oF
through valve to give a pressure drop of
1psi.
A flow of 1 usgpm through a valve of Cv 1
will give a pressure drop of 1 psi.
We will only consider Subcritical flow for
liquids in this course different formula
apply for gases and critical flow
Start of Critical flow varies with valve
design but occurs when valve P gets high

For simplicity we will also ignore pressure

recovery and the effects of reducers close
to control valves
Control Valves are almost always smaller
diameter than pipe
We will use following formula
For Turbulent Flow Cv=1.16Q(SG/P)0.5
For Laminar Flow you need to apply a
correction factor and the equation
becomes
Cv=1.16FrQ(SG/P)0.5
You will not be expected to calculate F r in
this module
Q Flow m3/h, P is pressure drop bar

Inherent Valve Characteristics

Control Valves have different speeds
of opening
There are typically three types

Quick Opening
Linear
Equal Percentage

A plot of valve travel v % of

maximum flow is in next slide
Essentially this allows you to know
valve Cv at a partially open condition

 For

a valve at 30% open and fully

open Cv of 100
Quick opening Cv = 56
Linear Cv = 30
Equal Percentage Cv = 8
Thus the choice of characteristics is
important
Equal Percentage valves are often
favoured
They give better control in most
cases

Choice of Cv
We

will go through some examples

later
To achieve good control of
centrifugal pumps using control
valves
Aim for 25-30% of total frictional
pressure drop to be in the control
valve
This is established practice for
good control
We will look in more detail under
pump control later

Centrifugal Pump Minimum Flow

As

mentioned earlier manufacturers

will specify a required minimum
flow for pumps to operate
satisfactorily
If you try to operate below this flow
pumps will be damaged
This is either because they either
overheat or the pump vibrates.
If the minimum flow is specified to
prevent overheating you must
ensure correct heat capacity of
liquid is used

Maintaining Minimum Flow

Discharge Pipework

Minimum Flow
Orifice

d=
Destination
Static Head

Inlet Pipework

Datum Level

Maintaining Minimum Flow

The normal way of doing this is to install a
recycle line back to the source tank
In this line install a flow restriction orifice to
limit the flow through recycle line
This orifice should be sized to maintain the
recycle flow just above pump minimum flow
The position of recycle line should be close to
pump discharge
Any manual valves that may isolate the
restriction orifice must be open when pump is
running.
Minimum flow recycles are a source of
inefficiency

Sizing Flow Restriction Orifices

You

need to be careful what formula you

use to calculate pressure drop in orifices
and nozzles.
Many of the equations, like those in Crane
calculate the pressure drop between one
pipe diameter upstream of the orifice and
0.5 pipe diameters downstream of orifice
These positions are commonly used for
measuring flow
However there is some significant flow
recovery downstream of the vena
contractor, so you need to factor this in.

Pressure Recovery
When

fluid flows through a

restrictor there is a pressure
recovery after the Vena Contractor
or narrowest flow point
P1>P2, P3>P2
P1

P2

P3

Restriction Orifice
Example
For

the pump curve on the next

slide
Size an orifice to restrict the flow to
the minimum flow required for the
115mm diameter impellor
Assume the static head on pump
suction and discharge are equal
Assume the total length of recycle
line is equivalent to 15 metres of 25
mm NB sched 40 pipework

Min Flow
BEP

Flow Through Orifice

Relationship

between pressure and flow

for orifice
q=3.48x10-6d12C(h)0.5
q=flow in m3/s
d1= internal diameter of orifice mm
C=flow coefficient for orifice
h=head loss in meters of fluid
C is a function of
= diameter of orifice/internal
diameter of pipe

Procedure Sizing Recycle Orifice

It is normal practice to ignore the
pressure drop in the pump suction line.
Remember pressure drop is proportional
to approximately the 5th power of pipe
diameter.
For the example we are considering the
pump inlet pipework will be 100 mm NB.
So therefore pressure drop per unit
length in suction pipework will be less
than 0.001 that of a 25mm recycle line.

Maintaining Minimum Flow

Discharge Pipework

Minimum Flow
Orifice

d=
Destination
Static Head

Inlet Pipework

Datum Level

 Since

the water is being returned to its

original pressure status we can ignore
static pressure differences. This may not
always be the case.
From the pump curve read flow and head
at minimum flow for chosen impellor size.
Say 15.5 Meter Head at flow of 1.5 m3/h
Next calculate pressure drop through the
recycle pipework excluding orifice plate
See next slide gives head loss of 0.47 m of
fluid calculate in same way as before
So orifice net pressure loss needs to be
15.03 m of fluid.

Recycle Pipework Pressure drop

Recycle Line
Viscosity
Density
Pipe ID
Flow
Pipe Length
Pipe X area
Volumetric flow rate
Average fluid Velocity

1 cp
1000 kg/m3
26.6 mm
1500 Kg/h
15 m
0.000556 m2
1.5 m3/h
2698.869 m/h
0.749686 m/s

Calculate Re
Absolute roughness

19941.64
0.04572 mm

Flow regime is turbulent

Relative roughness
Read f from chart

Head Loss hL=

fLv2/D2g
P=fLv2/2D

0.001719
0.029

M of
0.468454 fluid
4595.536 Pascals
0.045955 Bar

Sizing Orifices is an iterative procedure

In this case we are calculating the size
of an orifice to give us a known pressure
drop at a known flow.
The first step is to guess the answer diameter of orifice
Calculate the pipe Reynolds Number
Calculate the ratio of orifice to pipe
diameter
Read C coefficient discharge from chart
see Crane and following slides.
This is for instrument tapings so
calculate net pressure drop using
correction factor

Substitute known pressure and flow

into equation q=3.48x10-6d12C(h)0.5
Or use nomograph in Crane to obtain
d1
Change initial guess and iterate until
figures are in good agreement
So how do you make initial guess
You may find published data for
water air and steam, once you have
some experience you will get close
with first guess
My gut feel is we guess 8mm orifice
ID for this example!

Calculating Pressure Recovery For Instrument Orifice Calculations

100
90
80
70
60
% of Permanent Loss

50
40
30
20
10
0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3
Ratio

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

 From

Pressure Recovery Chart see

for =0.3
Net pressure loss is 68% of
calculated value
So in calculation we will use
pressure loss of 15.03/0.68=22.1 m
of water across orifice instrument
tapping points
It

is possible to get cavitation in

restriction orifices very rare as
pressures are high.

Orifice Calculation Iteration

1
Internal

Diameter of Pipe = 26.6

mm
Orifice ID = 8mm
= 8/26.6 = 0.30075
Calculate pipe Reynolds Number as
previously
=19936
Read C from charts = 0.615
Solve q=3.48x10-6d12C(h)0.5 for d1
d1 =

6.43

Size orifice to give pressure drop of

At Flow of

Density

15.03 meter water

1.5 m3/h
0.0004
17 m3/s
1000 kg/m3

Viscosity
Internal Diameter of Pipe

1 cP
26.6 mm
0.0266 m

Initial Guess Orifice

Diameter
ratio =
Pipe cross section area
Liquid velocity
Pipe Reynolds Number

8 mm
0.3007
52
0.0005
56 m2
0.7494
81 m/s
19936.
2

Beware Units !!!!!

Read C from Charts
From chart % net pressure drop
Head Loss for calculation
q=3.48x106
d12C(h)0.5
Solve
q/((3.48x10-

0.615
68.00%
22.102
94
for d1

Read c
= 0.615

 So

our initial guess was too large

Modify orifice guess need slightly
smaller than initially calculated
value due to C decreasing with
decreasing in this region
Try new d1 of 6.5
So

= .244
And net pressure loss is now 72% of
calculated value

New orifice
diameter

ratio
=
From chart % net
pressure drop
Head Loss for
calculation
Read C from
Charts
q=3.48x106
d12C(h)0.5
Solve
d12=
d1=

6.5 mm
0.24436
1
72.00%
20.875 m water
0.61
for d1
42.8604
5
6.54678
9

 So

we now have reasonable

agreement for the guess of 6.5 to
calculated value of 6.54 mm
An error of less than .05 mm is OK
for this type of calculation
Would specify orifice of 6.55 mm
internal diameter
The biggest error can be reading
value of C from chart depending on
Reynolds Number
I chose badly for the example

Two issues with restriction orifices

Need

to be wary if orifice gets below 6mm

As Unless the duty is clean there will be a

risk of orifice blocking with dirt particles.
You may also find small orifices will be noisy

The

solution to both these problems is to

have two orifices in series
Need to have at least 20 pipe diameters
between them
Size each for 50% of required pressure
drop.

Nomograph to
solve orifice
equation for d1
from Crane

Power Saving
Required

minimum flow for centrifugal

pumps are of the order 10-15% of design
flow.
When pump is at duty point, 5-7% power
is being wasted on minimum flow recycle
In order to save energy then an interlock
to close an actuated valve in the recycle
line when minimum flow is exceeded is
often installed
This addition is normally cost effective
especially if the duty flow is being
measured for other reasons.

Maintaining Minimum Flow

Discharge
Pipework

FS

FT

Minimum Flow
Orifice

d=
Destination
Static Head

Inlet Pipework

Datum Level

How Flow Trip Works

When the flow measured by the Flow
Transmitter Rises above approx. 1.5 times
minimum flow the Flow Switch closes the
Actuated Valve in the Pump Recycle
When the flow measured by the Flow
Transmitter falls below 1.1 times minimum
flow the Flow Switch opens the Actuated
Valve in the Pump Recycle
This range of values gives ample offset to
prevent valve constantly opening and closing.

Net Positive Suction Head

NPSHr

This stands for Net Positive

Suction Head Required- Specific to Pump
Units will normally be in Absolute
Meters of Fluid
Occasionally if the curve is calculated for
a specific liquid NPSHr may be in
pressure units, typically mBarA.
It is the minimum net pressure required
at the pump inlet nozzle to prevent the
pump cavitating.

Net Positive Suction Head

Available
Will

now work out NPSHA

For the pump to not cavitate NPSHA>NPSHr
Both need to be in absolute pressure units
NPSHA=
(Po+Ho)-(Suction Pipework P)- (Vapour
Pressure of Fluid at operating temperature)
NPSHr increases with flow so calculate at
maximum flow that you are designing for.
NPSHr typically 3-8 meter absolute of fluid

Pd =
Destination
Pressure

NPSHA
Po = Origin
Pressure

Discharge Pipework
Hd =
Destination
Static Head

Inlet Pipework

Ho = Origin
Static Head
Datum Level

 Normally

dont have any issues

unless source tank is under vacuum
Or liquid is viscous
Or liquid is close to boiling point.
Solution is to increase inlet
pipework diameter, reduce fittings,
increase static head.
Pump manufactures often have
options to decrease NPSHr but
typically reduces pump efficiency

NPSH Example
For the pump curve on next slide at
duty point marked
Source pressure 50 mbara
Source static head 6 meters
Length of suction pipe 10 metres, 1
reduced bore ball valve 3 x 1.5 d bends
Work out inlet pipework diameter to
satisfy suction head requirements
Operating temperature 20C

Duty Point

 Duty

Point Flow = 29.4 m3/h NPSHr= 2m

From tables at 20C, density of water 998.21
kg/m3, viscosity of 1.002 cP, Vapour
Pressure = 2.3393 kPa
First guess at 80 mm NB Schedule 40 pipe
Internal Diameter 77.9 mm
3 bends at L/D of 14 equivalent pipe length
= 3*14*0.0779 = 3.3 Meter
1 ball valve at L/D of 14 = 14*0.0779= 1.1
meter
Total length of pipework =10+3.3+1.1=14.4
Must also include inlet loss to pipe =
0.5v2/2g

Convert Vapour Pressure to meter of water =

2.3393*0.102=0.0239 m of water
Convert 50 mbara to meter of water =50*.0102 =
0.51
Calculate frictional pressure drop = 0.64 meter of
water same method as previously used
For 80 mm NB then NPSHA=
Origin Press+Static Press-Vapour PressureFrictional Loss
0.51+6-0.0239-0.64=5.85 meter
This is greater than NPSHR of 2 m so design is OK
If we repeated calculation for 50 mm nb pipe then
NPSHA = 2.3 m
This is to close to NPSHr so should stick with 80
mm diameter

Suction Line
80mm
Equivalent Length
bends
3.2718Metre
Equivalent Length Ball
Valve
1.0906Meter
Viscosity
1.002cp
Density
998.21kg/m3
Pipe ID
77.9mm
Flow
29347.37Kg/h
Pipe Length
14.3624m
Pipe X area
0.004767m2
Volumetric flow rate
29.4m3/h
Average fluid Velocity
6167.742m/h
1.713262m/s
Calculate Re
Absolute roughness
Flow regime is
turbulent

132958.3
0.04572mm

Relative roughness

0.000587

Read f from chart

Head Loss hL=
fLv2/D2g
Inlet head loss
=0.5v2/2g

0.0204
0.562689M of fluid
0.074803m of Fluid

Pump Drives

Power

Source
Electric Motors
Diesel Engines
Steam Turbines
Gas Turbines
These are the primary drives often gear
boxes fixed or variable may be used
between motor and pump
The vast majority of drives are by electric
motors will consider in more detail later

Diesel Engines
Useful

when no electrical power supply or

require pump to work in case of complete
electrical failure
Widely used for Fire water Pumps
Normally run at fixed speed but can vary
Noisy, require cooling system, need lot of space.
Need fuel storage
Drives up to 2MW
Normally have battery powered starter motor
but can be by compressed air injection. Require
5-10% of engine power to start.

Steam Turbines
Traditionally

used in industries that

produced waste heat steam.
High capital cost especially if large
distance from steam supply
Normally Require Superheated Steam
Only of use on large pumps
Can be variable speed

Gas Turbines
Becoming More popular for large pumps
in remote locations
e.g. Oil transfer pipelines
Control systems mean can be run
remotely
Relatively Low Installation Costs
Variable speed
Can be supplied as skid mounted Units
Available from 200 kW to 50 MW

Electric Motors
Electric

Motors are available from fractions

of a kW, motors up to 50 MW are now
common on pumps and compressors
They can come in a number of fixed speeds.
The speed of an electric motor depends on
the frequency of the electrical supply and
number of poles the motor has.
In Europe Electricity supply frquency is 50
hertz in US it is 60 Hertz

Centrifugal pump speeds are normally given

in rpm revolutions per minute
Electrically driven pumps often connect
directly from motor and run at motor speed.
Gear boxes sometimes used
Speed of motor is = electrical supply
frequency divided by number of pairs of pole
in motor less a factor based on slippage
So for UK two pole motor speed in rpm =
50*60/1 = 3000 rpm
In practice they will run between 2850 and
2900 rpm.
Electric motors typically have between one
and four pairs of poles

 In

recent years the development of Variable

Frequency Drives has greatly improved the
use of electrically driven pumps
They modify the frequency of supply to
pump motor
The can either increase or decrease the
frequency of supply
Some power is lost in the VFD, they are
commonly called Inverters however this
is more than made up by hydraulic
efficiency improvement
The Inverter output frequency is controlled
by a 4-20 mA signal typically from the
control system.

Control of Flow
We

will consider the following

forms of control either alone or in
combination. There are other
methods but we will not consider.
Throttling typically control valve
Speed control
Stopping and starting multiple
pumps
By Pass Control

No Control
Not

all pump installations need

control
For instance pumping between
storage tanks does not require
control
In these cases it is important to
have pumps correctly sized
Require good operating procedures
for starting and stopping pump so
as to not damage pumps.

Throttling Control
Closing

a throttling valve in the pump

discharge line increases frictional
pressure drop and reduces flow
Throttling in pump suction lines is not
used as NPSHa is reduced and is likely to
damage pump.
Throttling increases pump power
requirements
It is typically used where small
deviations in flow are required or where
there are multiple destinations for flow

 It

typically requires less capital than VFD

and is more suitable for remote locations
Throttling may be by hand valves or
more likely instrument control valve.
For good control you require a significant
pressure drop through control valve
Normal recommendation is need at least
25%of frictional pressure drop across
control valve to get good control
You can get cavitation effects in control
valves to avoid this locate in high
pressure end of pipework if possible.

For simplicity we will also ignore pressure

recovery and the effects of reducers close
to control valves
Control Valves are almost always smaller
diameter than pipe
We will use following formula
For Turbulent Flow Cv=1.16Q(SG/P)0.5
For Laminar Flow you need to apply a
correction factor and the equation
becomes
Cv=1.16FrQ(SG/P)0.5
You will not be expected to calculate F r in
this module
Q Flow m3/h, P is pressure drop bar

Control Valve Example

For

this we will develop the

example we used earlier when we
plotted system curve
We will simplify by assuming that
there is no minimum flow orifice for
the design cases.
It is required to control flow
between 50 and 125 m3/h normal
flow 100 m3/h

Pump Q/H Curve For Control Valve Example

60
50
40

H (m)
30
20
10
0
0

50

100

150

Q (m3/h)

200

250

300

Control Valve example

Pd =
Destination
Pressure

All manual valves reduced bore ball valves

Po = Origin
Pressure
Discharge Pipework

Inlet Pipework

Ho = Origin
Static Head

Flow Control Valve

Hd =
Destination
Static Head

Flow Transmitter

Datum Level

Example Control Valve

Simple

example
Inlet Pipe 10 meters, 150 mm NB Sched 40, 2
1.5 D bends
Discharge Pipe 80 meters, 100 mm NB Sched.
40 Pipe, 5 1.5 D bends
Origin Pressure Po = 1 Bara
Origin Static Head = 10 m
Destination Pressure = 2.0 Bara
Destination Static Head = 15 m
Assume no pressure drop in Flow Transmitter
Fluid is water Viscosity 1 cP, density
1000kg/m3

Calculation Method
First

plot the system curve without

the control valve.
It needs to cross the pump curve to
the right of the points at which you
wish to control
Read of the pressure difference
between system curve and pump
curve at the points you wish to
control

System Curve and Pump Curve Without

Control Valve
80.00

Head M
70.00

H
e
a
d
M
e
tr
e

60.00
50.00
System Curve

40.00

Pump Curve
30.00
20.00
10.00

Flow m3/h

0.00
0

50

100

150

200

250

 Below

are Readings From Previous

Slide
This information can be used to size
a control valve
This shows that when you use
throttling to control by centrifugal
pumps over a wide range you waste
a great deal of energy at low flows
Control will be good as a high
Control
percentage
of
P
is
across
control
Dynamic Control Valve
Valve P
Flow
m3/h
P
P M
%
Bar
valve
50
100
125

2.45
9.43
14.61

19.25
10.27
4.1

785.41%
108.91%
28.06%

1.89
1.01
0.40

Choosing The Control Valve

Next

step is to select the correct valve, this

will normally done in conjunction with
instrument engineer and valve suppliers
We will look at selecting valve of correct cv
and control characteristics.

Will

use the equation from earlier

For Turbulent Flow
Cv=1.16Q(SG/P)0.5
Q Flow m3/h, P is pressure drop bar
First calculate cv for normal control
point

 That

is flow of 100 m3/h and

P=1.01 bar
Substitute in equation
Cv=1.16Q(SG/P)0.5
Cv = 1.16x100*(1/1.101)0.5
=115.4
Repeat calculation for minimum and
maximum flows gives
For 50m3/h required Cv = 42.19
For 125 m3/h required Cv= 229.3
Choose valve so that its normal
control point is around 30% open

 You

will now see what effect

choosing different characteristics
has.
To control at 100 m3/h at 30% open
then fully open Cv will be 384
The required travel of valve at
other control points will depend on
valve characteristics
Flow
50m3/h
100m3/h
125m3/h
Linear

11%

30%

60%

Equal %

40%

67.5%

85%

Quick
Opening

7%

17%

32%

Using Variable Speed

Will

now look at same example but

using variable speed to control.
Method is to start with the same
plot of pump curve v system curve
Then recalculate pump curves using
pump affinity laws
We will refer to the original pump
curve as 100%

System Curve and Pump Curve Without

Control
80.00

Head M
70.00

H
e
a
d
M
e
tr
e

60.00
50.00
System Curve

40.00

Pump Curve
30.00
20.00
10.00

Flow m3/h

0.00
0

50

100

150

200

250

 Pump

affinity laws we will require,

impellor diameter is not changed so
is omitted from expression.

Volume
Q1/Q2=(N1/N2)
Head or Pressure
H1/H2=(N1/N2)2

Values

shown on next slide

System
Flow Curve M
M3/H Water
0
25.30
50
27.75
100
34.73

Pump
Head
100%
48
47
45

150

46.03

40.8

200

61.77

35

250

81.76

26

Flow
76%
Speed
0.00
38.00
76.00

Head
76%
Speed
27.72
27.15
25.99

Flow
87%
Speed
0.00
43.50
87.00
130.5
114.00 23.57
0
174.0
152.00 20.22
0
217.5
190.00 15.02
0

Head
87%
Speed
36.33
35.57
34.06

Flow
95%
speed
0.00
47.50
95.00
142.5
30.88
0
190.0
26.49
0
237.5
19.68
0

Head
95%
Speed
43.32
42.42
40.61
36.82
31.59
23.47

Plot of Different Speeds

50.00

40.00

System Curve

30.00

100% speed
76% speed
87% Speed

20.00

93% Speed

10.00

0.00
0

50

100

150

200

250

Shows speed needs to be variable

between 76and 93% of original pump
speed
Normally pump suppliers will provide
curves at different speeds and they will
show other information such as power
requirements, minimum flow and NPSH
required.
In the UK it is common to run above
100% speeds as most pumps will be
designed to work in North America where
frequency of electricity supply is 20%
higher

By Pass Control
Rarely

used
Typically most energy inefficient
Can be useful for high speed and
axial flow pumps due to shape of
power curve
Method is to simply control flow to
destination by controlling recycle
flow to source vessel

By Pass Control
Discharge Pipework

FIC

FT
d=
Destination
Static Head

Inlet Pipework

Datum Level

Stopping and Starting Multiple Pumps

This

is useful to employ where the

required duty flow varies
significantly
Pumps may be operated in series or
parallel
Typically when static head pressure
drop is greater than frictional
pressure drop parallel operation
may be best
Conversely when frictional head
loss is higher than static head loss
series operation is likely to be best.

Multiple Pumps
For

the pump curve on next slide

which will give most flow
Two Pumps In Parallel
Two Pumps In Series
Three Pumps in Parallel
Static

Water

Head Difference is 10 M

Flow V Head
30

Head M
Water

25

20

15

Flow M3/H

10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

 Single

Pump
53.9 m3/h
Two in Parallel
62.1 m3/h
Three in Parallel
63.9 m3/h
Two In Series
76.4 m3/h

 Pumps

with steep curves are better

used in parallel operation
Pumps with flat curves are better
used in series operation
A disadvantage of series operation
is that the down stream pumps may
be pressurised and may need
internal recirculation to protect
seals which leads to inefficiency

 One

use of multiple pumps is for duties

that depend on rain water ie waste water
treatment plants
It is now common to use a combination of
variable speed pumps with stopping and
starting
If using parallel pumps then pumps must
always be ran at the same speed
Parallel pumps also need some protection
to prevent recirculation through non
operating pumps. Non return valves can
be used but will tend to pass, actuated
on/off valves are better.

Combining Pump Curves

For

pumps in series it is simple

At a given flow add the pump heads
together
Often pumps in series are operated
with a long length of pipe between
the two pumps.
In this case it better to think of the
two pumps independently as the
head at which the pumps operate
may be different.

Flow
M3/H
0
50
100
150
200
250

Series Curve
120

Series 2
Pump Curve
96
94
90
81.6
70
52

100
80
60
40
20
0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Single
Pump
Curve
48
47
45
40.8
35
26

Parallel Operation
To

get pump curve for pumps in

parallel at a given head you add the
flows
Pumps in parallel are used often
Frequency of use has increased in
recent years due to availability of
simpler variable speed control
When operate identical variable
speed pumps in parallel you need
to have them running at same
speed

Single
Pump Flow
0
50
100
150
200
250

Parallel Pumps
60

Parrallel
Pump Flow
0
100
200
300
400
500

50

parallel pump curve

40

Single Pump Curve

30

20
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Single
Pump
Curve
Head
48
47
45
40.8
35
26

Multi Stage Pumps

Multi

stage pumps are a special

case of pumps in series
They are made as one unit with
multiple impellors in series in one
body
They give a distinctly different
curves
Often used for boiler feed water
pump duty

Specifying a Pump
When

it is required to obtain a new

pump then most organisations will
follow a fairly standard procedure.

Step

1 Process Engineer
completes data sheets containing
all process related in formation

There are data sheets available in

blackboard for mechanically sealed
pump. The process engineer will fill in
all sections of the Process Data Sheet
and the sections of the Mechanical
data sheet highlighted in green

This is the minimum required

information often there would be
additional design cases- varying
viscosity, multiple duties.

Step 2- The rotating equipment

engineer would complete the majority
of other applicable fields in the data
sheet rotating equipment engineer
would normally be a specialist
mechanical engineer

Some fields will be filled in with

phrase like Vendor to Complete

Step 3 The data sheets would be

send to potential vendors for
quotation

Step 4 - Vendors would be returned

with their offer of pump type cost etc.
Step 5 -The process and rotating
equipment engineer would assess the
quotations for technical aspects and
likely iterate the best two quotations
until they are completely happy with
technical specifications
Step 6 Purchasing would negotiate
price
Step 7 Place Order